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(from Wikipedia entry)

Mary Augusta Ward née Arnold; (11 June 1851 - 24 March 1920), was a British novelist who wrote under her married name as Mrs Humphry Ward. Mary Augusta Arnold was born in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia, into a prominent intellectual family of writers and educationalists. Mary was the daughter of Tom Arnold, a professor of literature, and Julia Sorrell. Her uncle was the poet Matthew Arnold and her grandfather Thomas Arnold, the famous headmaster of Rugby School. Her sister Julia married Leonard Huxley, the son of Thomas Huxley, and their sons were Julian and Aldous Huxley. The Arnolds and the Huxleys were an important influence on British intellectual life. Mary's father Tom Arnold was appointed inspector of schools in Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) and commenced his role on 15 January 1850. Tom Arnold was received into the Roman Catholic Church on 12 January 1856, which made him so unpopular in his job (and with his wife) that he resigned and left for England with his family in July 1856. Mary Arnold had her fifth birthday the month before they left, and had no further connection with Tasmania. Tom Arnold was ratified as chair of English literature at the contemplated Catholic university, Dublin, after some delay. Mary spent much of her time with her grandmother. She was educated at various boarding schools (from ages 11 to 15, in Shifnal, Shropshire) and at 16 returned to live with her parents at Oxford, where her father had a lecturership in history. Her schooldays formed the basis for one of her later novels, Marcella (1894).

On 6 April 1872, not yet 21 years old, Mary married Humphry Ward, a fellow and tutor of Brasenose College, and also a writer and editor. For the next nine years she continued to live at Oxford, at 17 Bradmore Road, where she is commemorated by a blue plaque. She had by now made herself familiar with French, German, Italian, Latin and Greek. She was developing an interest in social and educational service and making tentative efforts at literature. She added Spanish to her languages, and in 1877 undertook the writing of a large number of the lives of early Spanish ecclesiastics for the Dictionary of Christian Biography edited by Dr William Smith and Dr. Henry Wace. Her translation of Amiel's Journal appeared in 1887. Mary Augusta Ward began her career writing articles for Macmillan's Magazine while working on a book for children that was published in 1881 under the title Milly and Olly. This was followed in 1884 by a more ambitious, though slight, study of modern life, Miss Bretherton, the story of an actress. Ward's novels contained strong religious subject matter relevant to Victorian values she herself practised. Her popularity spread beyond Great Britain to the United States. Her book Lady Rose's Daughter was the best-selling novel in the United States in 1903, as was The Marriage of William Ashe in 1905. Ward's most popular novel by far was the religious "novel with a purpose" Robert Elsmere, which portrayed the emotional conflict between the young pastor Elsmere and his wife, whose over-narrow orthodoxy brings her religious faith and their mutual love to a terrible impasse; but it was the detailed discussion of the "higher criticism" of the day, and its influence on Christian belief, rather than its power as a piece of dramatic fiction, that gave the book its exceptional vogue. It started, as no academic work could have done, a popular discussion on historic and essential Christianity. Ward helped establish an organisation for working and teaching among the poor. She also worked as an educator in the residential settlement movements she founded. Mary Ward's declared aim was "equalisation" in society, and she established educational settlements first at Marchmont Hall and later at Tavistock Place in Bloomsbury. This was originally called the Passmore Edwards Settlement, after its benefactor John Passmore Edwards, but after Ward's death it became the Mary Ward Settlement. It is now known as the Mary Ward Centre and continues as an adult education college; affiliated with it is the Mary Ward Legal Centre.

She was also a significant campaigner against women getting the vote. In the summer of 1908 she was approached by George Nathaniel Curzon and William Cremer, who asked her to be the founding president of the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League. Ward took on the job, creating and editing the Anti-Suffrage Review. She published a large number of articles on the subject, while two of her novels, The Testing of Diana Mallory and Delia Blanchflower, were used as platforms to criticise the suffragettes. In a 1909 article in The Times, Ward wrote that constitutional, legal, financial, military, and international problems were problems only men could solve. However, she came to promote the idea of women having a voice in local government and other rights that the men's anti-suffrage movement would not tolerate.

During World War I, Ward was asked by United States President Theodore Roosevelt to write a series of articles to explain to Americans what was happening in Britain. Her work involved visiting the trenches on the Western Front, and resulted in three books, England's Effort - Six Letters to an American Friend (1916), Towards the Goal (1917), and Fields of Victory (1919). Mary Augusta Ward died in London, England, and was interred at Aldbury in Hertfordshire, near her beloved country home Stocks.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Augusta_Ward

Author of Princetoniana. Charles and A.A. Hodge: with class and table tale of Hodge the Younger (1888), Eli, Samuel, & Saul a transition chapter in Ireaelitish history (1904), Exposition and defence of Prince Bismarck's anit-Ultramontane policy: showing the difference between the present state of the Romish question in Germany and Great Britain (1876), The religious question in France in the light of historic facts and of current events (1905), The parables of Our Lord (1880), A woman's work: memorials of Eliza Fletcher (1900), Our Christian passover: a guide for young people in the serious study of the Lord's Super (1830), Echoes of the war (1916).

Author of "Illustrated handbook to the city and cathedral of Peterborough."

(from Wikipedia entry)

Sir George Henry Savage (1842-1921) was a prominent English psychiatrist. Savage was born in Brighton in 1842, the son of a chemist. Educated at Brighton College, he served an internship at Guy's Hospital from 1861. After 1865, he was resident at Guy's; he earned his MD in 1867. He remained a regular lecturer at the hospital for decades after.

During his time as a doctor for a mining company in Nenthead, he met his wife, Margaret Walton; however, she died after a year of marriage. The couple had one child. Shortly after his wife's death, Savage accepted an appointment as an assistant medical officer at Bethlem Royal Hospital. By 1878, he had become chief medical officer at the hospital; in the same year, he joined the MCRP.

Also in 1878, Savage cofounded the Journal of Mental Science with Thomas Clouston and Daniel Hack Tuke. He published regularly in this journal until the end of his career. At Bethlem and after, he was sparing in his use of chemical sedation, although his freedom with physical restraint drew criticism from Henry Maudsley, J. C. Bucknill, and others.

Over the course of the 1880s, private practice took up more of Savage's time; he finally retired in 1888 to devote himself entirely to private practice. In 1882, he married Adelaide Sutton, the daughter of another doctor.

He drew his private clientele from wealthy or well-connected London society. Virginia Woolf saw him intermittently for a decade, and he is among the figures lampooned in the Sir William Bradshaw of Mrs. Dalloway. At the same time, he worked as a consultant for a number of asylums, and was often called in on especially difficult cases.

His major public work was Insanity and Allied Neuroses, a reference book for students; published in 1884, it was revised and reissued in 1894 and 1907. In 1909 he delivered the Harveian Oration to the Royal College of Physicians on the subject of Experimental Psychology and Hypnotism. He was knighted in 1912.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Savage_(physician) .

Archibald Henry Sayce was an orientalist and comparative philologist.

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Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller (August 16, 1864 - August 6, 1937) was a German-British philosopher. Born in Altona, Holstein (at that time member of the German Confederation, but under Danish administration), Schiller studied at the University of Oxford, and later was a professor there, after being invited back after a brief time at Cornell University. Later in his life he taught at the University of Southern California. In his lifetime he was well known as a philosopher; after his death his work was largely forgotten.

Schiller's philosophy was very similar to and often aligned with the pragmatism of William James, although Schiller referred to it as "humanism". He argued vigorously against both logical positivism and associated philosophers (for example, Bertrand Russell) as well as absolute idealism (such as F.H. Bradley).

Schiller was an early supporter of evolution and a founding member of the English Eugenics Society. Born in 1864, one of three brothers and the son of Ferdinand Schiller (a Calcutta merchant), Schiller's family home was in Switzerland. Schiller was educated at Rugby and Balliol, and graduated in the first class of Literae Humaniores, winning later the Taylorian scholarship for German in 1887. Schiller's first book, Riddles of the Sphinx (1891), was an immediate success despite his use of a pseudonym because of his fears concerning how the book would be received. Between the years 1893 and 1897 he was an instructor in philosophy at Cornell University. In 1897 he returned to Oxford and became fellow and tutor of Corpus for more than thirty years. Schiller was president of the Aristotelian Society in 1921, and was for many years treasurer of the Mind Association. In 1926 he was elected a fellow of the British Academy. In 1929 he was appointed visiting professor in the University of Southern California, and spent half of each year in the United States and half in England. Schiller died in Los Angeles either August 6, 7, or 9th of 1937 after a long and lingering illness.

Schiller was a founding member of the English Eugenics Society and published three books on the subject; Tantalus or the Future of Man (1924), Eugenics and Politics (1926), and Social Decay and Eugenic Reform (1932). In 1891, F.C.S. Schiller made his first contribution to philosophy anonymously. Schiller feared that in his time of high naturalism, the metaphysical speculations of his Riddles of the Sphinx were likely to hurt his professional prospects (p. xi, Riddles). However, Schiller's fear of reprisal from his anti-metaphysical colleagues should not suggest that Schiller was a friend of metaphysics. Like his fellow pragmatists across the ocean, Schiller was attempting to stake out an intermediate position between both the spartan landscape of naturalism and the speculative excesses of the metaphysics of his time. In Riddles Schiller both,

(1) accuses naturalism (which he also sometimes calls "pseudometaphysics" or "positivism") of ignoring the fact that metaphysics is required to justify our natural description of the world, and
(2) accuses "abstract metaphysics" of losing sight of the world we actually live in and constructing grand, disconnected imaginary worlds.
The result, Schiller contends, is that naturalism cannot make sense of the "higher" aspects of our world (freewill, consciousness, God, purpose, universals), while abstract metaphysics cannot make sense of the "lower" aspects of our world (the imperfect, change, physicality). In each case we are unable to guide our moral and epistemological "lower" lives to the achievement of life's "higher" ends, ultimately leading to skepticism on both fronts. For knowledge and morality to be possible, both the world's lower and higher elements must be real; e.g. we need universals (a higher) to make knowledge of particulars (a lower) possible. This would lead Schiller to argue for what he at the time called a "concrete metaphysics", but would later call "humanism".

Shortly after publishing Riddles of the Sphinx, Schiller became acquainted with the work of pragmatist philosopher William James and this changed the course of his career. For a time, Schiller's work became focused on extending and developing James' pragmatism (under Schiller's preferred title, "humanism"). Schiller even revised his earlier work Riddles of the Sphinx to make the nascent pragmatism implicit in that work more explicit. In one of Schiller's most prominent works during this phase of his career, “Axioms as Postulates” (1903), Schiller extended James' will to believe doctrine to show how it could be used to justify not only an acceptance of God, but also our acceptance of causality, of the uniformity of nature, of our concept of identity, of contradiction, of the law of excluded middle, of space and time, of the goodness of God, and more. In Riddles, Schiller gives historical examples of the dangers of abstract metaphysics in the philosophies of Plato, Zeno, and Hegel, portraying Hegel as the worst offender: "Hegelianism never anywhere gets within sight of a fact, or within touch of reality. And the reason is simple: you cannot, without paying the penalty, substitute abstractions for realities; the thought-symbol cannot do duty for the thing symbolized".

Schiller argued that both abstract metaphysics and naturalism portray man as holding an intolerable position in the world. He proposed a method that not only recognizes the lower world we interact with, but takes into account the higher world of purposes, ideals and abstractions. Schiller also developed a method of philosophy intended to mix elements of both naturalism and abstract metaphysics in a way that allows us to avoid the twin scepticisms each method collapses into when followed on its own. However, Schiller does not assume that this is enough to justify his humanism over the other two methods. He accepts the possibility that both scepticism and pessimism are true.

As early as 1891 Schiller had independently reached a doctrine very similar to William James’ Will to Believe. As early as 1892 Schiller had independently developed his own pragmatist theory of truth. However, Schiller's concern with meaning was one he entirely imports from the pragmatisms of James and Peirce. Later in life Schiller musters all of these elements of his pragmatism to make a concerted attack on formal logic. Concerned with bringing down the timeless, perfect worlds of abstract metaphysics early in life, the central target of Schiller’s developed pragmatism is the abstract rules of formal logic. Statements, Schiller contends, cannot possess meaning or truth abstracted away from their actual use. Therefore examining their formal features instead of their function in an actual situation is to make the same mistake the abstract metaphysician makes. Symbols are meaningless scratches on paper unless they are given a life in a situation, and meant by someone to accomplish some task. They are tools for dealing with concrete situations, and not the proper subjects of study themselves.

Both Schiller’s theory of truth and meaning (i.e. Schiller’s pragmatism) derive their justification from an examination of thought from what he calls his humanist viewpoint (his new name for concrete metaphysics). He informs us that to answer “what precisely is meant by having a meaning” will require us to “raise the prior question of why we think at all.”. A question Schiller of course looks to evolution to provide.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._C._S._Schiller .

(from Wikipedia entry)

Olive Schreiner (24 March 1855 - 11 December 1920) was a South African author, anti-war campaigner and intellectual. She is best remembered today for her novel The Story of an African Farm which has been highly acclaimed ever since its first publication in 1883 for the bold manner in which it dealt with some of the burning issues of the day, including agnosticism, existential independence, individualism and the professional aspirations of women; as well as its portrayal of the elemental nature of life on the colonial frontier. In more recent studies she has also been foregrounded as an apologist for those sidelined by the forces of British Imperialism, such as the Afrikaners, and later other South African groups like Blacks, Jews and Indians - to name but a few. Although she showed interest in socialism, pacifism, vegetarianism and feminism amongst other things, her true views escape restrictive categorisations. Her published works and other surviving writings promote implicit values like moderation, friendship and understanding amongst all peoples, avoiding the pitfalls of political radicalism which she consciously eschewed. Although she may be called a lifelong freethinker in terms of her Victorian background - as opposed to mainstream Christianity - she always remained true to the spirit of the Christian Bible and developed a secular version of the worldview of her missionary parents, with mystical elements.

Karel Schoeman, the South African historian and leading authority on Schreiner's life, has written in one of his books about her that she was an outstanding figure in a South African context, although perhaps not quite the same abroad. In the Preface to the same work, Schoeman acknowledges that although The Story of an African Farm is by no means perfect, it is still unique and gripping even to the modern reader. He also outlines the basic pattern of her life which serves as a useful guide to this article, and the pursuit of further interest in the subject:

"From a chronological viewpoint, Olive Schreiner's life shows an interesting pattern. After she spent the first twenty-five thereof in South Africa ... she was in England for more than seven years, and also lived during this time in Europe. After this she lived in South Africa for twenty-four years, the time of her friendship with Rhodes, the Anglo-Boer war and her growing involvement in issues like racism and the lot of women, after which another exile followed in England for seven years; it was only shortly before her death in 1920 that she returned to South Africa" (Olive Schreiner: A Life in South Africa 1855-1881, Human & Rousseau, Cape Town, 1989). Olive Emilie Albertina Schreiner (1855-1920) was the ninth of twelve children born to a missionary couple at the Wesleyan Missionary Society station at Wittebergen in the Eastern Cape, near Herschel in South Africa. Her parents, Gottlob Schreiner and Rebecca Lyndall, married in England in 1837. She was named after her three older brothers, Oliver (1848-1854), Albert (1843-1843) and Emile (1852-1852), who died before she was born. Her childhood was a harsh one as her father was loving and gentle, though impractical; but her mother Rebecca was intent on teaching her children the same restraint and self-discipline that had been a part of her upbringing. Olive received virtually all her initial education from her mother, who was well-read and gifted.[clarification needed] Her eldest brother Frederic Samuel (1841-1901) obtained a BA at London University and founded New College in Eastbourne in 1873/4. He remained as headmaster until late 1897 but continued to run the junior school until 1901. He died in 1901 at the Grand Hotel in Eastbourne and was interred in the town.

When Olive was six, Gottlob transferred to Healdtown in the Eastern Cape to run the Wesleyan training institute there. As with so many of his other projects, he simply was not up to the task and was expelled in disgrace for trading against missionary regulations. He was forced to make his own living for the first time in his life, and tried a business venture. Again, he failed and was insolvent within a year. The family lived in abject poverty as a result.

However, Olive was not to remain with her parents for long. When her older brother Theophilus (1844-1920) was appointed headmaster in Cradock in 1867, she went to live with him along with two of her siblings. She also attended his school and received a formal education for the first time. Despite that, she was no happier in Cradock than she had been in Wittebergen or Healdtown. Her siblings were very religious, but Olive had already questioned the Christianity of her parents like many learned Victorians, and it was the cause of many arguments that she had with her family.

Therefore, when Theo and her brother left Cradock for the diamond fields of Griqualand West, Olive chose to become a governess . On the way to her first post at Barkly East, she met Willie Bertram, who shared her views of religion and who lent her a copy of Herbert Spencer’s First Principles. This text was to have a profound impact on her. While rejecting religious creeds and doctrine, Spencer also argued for a belief in an Absolute that lay beyond the scope of human knowledge and conception. This belief was founded in the unity of nature and a teleological universe, both of which Olive was to appropriate for herself in her attempts to create a morality free of organized religion.

After this meeting, Olive travelled from place to place, accepting posts as a governess with various families, later leaving them because of personal conflict with her employers. One issue which always surfaced, was her unusual view of religion. Her apostasy didn't sit well with the traditional farm folk she worked amongs.

Another factor was that she was somewhat unconventional in her relationships, for she was uncertain as to how to relate sexually to her male employers in many cases, and men in general. During this time she met Julius Gau, to whom she became engaged under doubtful circumstances. For whatever reason, their engagement did not last long and she returned to live with her parents and then with her brothers. She read widely and began writing seriously. She started Undine at this time. As in the case of her later husband, Cronwright, she may have been attracted to Gau, as other men, for his dominant personality, maturity and physicality...However, her brothers’ financial situation soon deteriorated, as diamonds became increasingly difficult to find. Olive had no choice but to resume her transient lifestyle, moving between various households and towns, until she returned briefly to her parents in 1874. It was there that she had the first of the asthma attacks that would plague her for the rest of her life. Since her parents were no more financially secure than before and because of her ill-health, Olive was forced to resume working in order to support them.

Over the next few years, she accepted the position of governess at a number of farms, most notably the Fouchés who provided inspiration for certain aspects of The Story of an African Farm, which she published under the pseudonym “Ralph Iron,” as well as a small collection of stories and allegories called Dream Life and Real Life.

However, Olive’s real ambitions did not lie in the direction of writing. She had always wanted to be a doctor, but had never had enough money to pay for the training. Undaunted, she decided that she would be a nurse as that did not require her to pay anything. By 1880, she had saved enough money for an overseas trip and she applied to the Royal Infirmary in Edinburgh in Scotland. In 1881, she traveled to Southampton in England. Once there, she was never to realize her dream of becoming a medical practitioner, as her ill-health prevented her from completing any form of training or studying. She was forced to concede that writing would and could be her only work in life.

Despite that, she still had a passion to heal society’s ills and set out to do with her pen what she could not with pills. Her Story of an African Farm was acclaimed for the manner it tackled the issues of its day, ranging from agnosticism to the treatment of women. It was also the cause of one of her most significant and long-lasting friendships, as the renowned sexologist Havelock Ellis wrote to her about her novel. Their relationship soon developed beyond intellectual debate to a genuine source of support for Schreiner.

She finally met him in 1884 when she went with him to a meeting of the Progressive Organisation, a group for freethinkers to discuss political and philosophical views. This was one of a number of radical discussion groups to which she was to belong and brought her into contact with many important socialists of the time. A friendship as influential as that with Ellis was with Edward Carpenter, the founder Socialist and gay rights activist, which, as Stephen Gray shows, remains hardly explored.[3] In addition to the Progressive Organisation, she also attended meetings of the Fellowship of the New Order and Karl Pearson’s Men and Women's Club, where she was insistent on the critical importance of woman’s equality and the need to consider men as well as women when looking at gender relationships.

However, her own relationships with men were anything but happy. She had refused a proposal from her doctor, Bryan Donkin, but he was irritatingly persistent in his suit of her. To make matters worse, despite her reservations about Karl Pearson and her intentions just to remain his friend, she soon conceived an attraction for him. He did not reciprocate her feelings, preferring Elizabeth Cobb. In 1886, she left England for the Continent under something of a cloud, traveling between Switzerland, France and Italy before returning to England. During this time, she was tremendously productive, working on From Man to Man and publishing numerous allegories. She also worked on an introduction to Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Women. Given the situation in England, it is perhaps unsurprising that Schreiner chose to return to South Africa, sailing back to Cape Town in 1889. The return home was unsettling for her - she felt extremely alienated from the people around her, but at the same time experienced a great affinity for the land itself. In an attempt to reconnect with her surroundings, she became increasingly involved in local politics as well as produced a series of articles on the land and people around her, published posthumously as Thoughts on South Africa. Through her work with local politics she became intimate friends with Emily Hobhouse and Elizabeth Maria Molteno, influential women activists with similar opinions on civil and women's rights.

Her involvement with Cape politics led her into an association with Cecil John Rhodes, with whom she would soon become disillusioned and against whom she would write her bitterly satirical allegory Trooper Peter Halket of Mashonaland. This disillusionment began with his support of the “strop bill” that would allow black and coloured servants to be flogged for relatively small offenses.

Her opposition to the “strop bill” also brought her into contact with Samuel Cronwright, a politically active farmer. They were of the same mind on the “Native Question” and on Rhodes, and Schreiner soon fell in love with him. During a brief visit to England in 1893, she discussed with her friends the possibility of marrying him, although she was concerned that she would find marriage restrictive. She put aside these doubts, however, and they were married in 1894, after which they settled at Cronwright’s farm.

The next few years were difficult and unsettled ones for them. Schreiner’s worsening health forced the couple to move constantly, while her first and only child, a daughter, died within a day. This loss was only worsened by the fact that all her other pregnancies would end in miscarriages. However, she found solace in work, publishing a pamphlet with her husband on the political situation in 1896 and Trooper Peter Halket of Mashonaland the next year. Both of these isolated her from her family and the people around her, and she was given to long spells of loneliness during that period of her life. hen Woman and Labour was finally published in 1911, Schreiner was severely ill, her asthma worsened by attacks of angina. Two years later, she sailed alone to England for treatment, where she was trapped by the outbreak of World War I. During this time, her primary interest was in pacifism - she was in contact with Gandhi and other prominent activists like Emily Hobhouse and Elizabeth Maria Molteno - and she started a book on war, which was abbreviated and published as The Dawn of Civilisation. This was the last book she was to write. After the war, she returned home to the Cape, where she died in her sleep in a boarding house in 1920. She was buried later in Kimberley. After the death of her husband, Samuel Cronwright, her body was exhumed. Olive Schreiner, along with her baby, dog and husband were buried atop Buffelskop mountain, on the farm known as Buffelshoek, near Cradock, in the Eastern Cape.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_Schreiner .

Professor of eugenics (?)

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Alexander Faulkner Shand FBA (20 May 1858 - 6 January 1936) was an English writer and barrister. Born in Bayswater, London he was the son of Hugh Morton Shand, a Scot, and his wife Edrica Faulkner, Italian born but the daughter of Joshua Wilson Faulkner of Kent. He was a founding member of the British Psychological Society in 1901 and was awarded with honorary membership in 1934. He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy (FBA). Through his son Philip, he is the paternal great-grandfather of HRH Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Faulkner_Shand .

Born Sarah Scott. Eldest daughter of John and Elizabeth Scott. Married Joseph Henry Shorthouse at the Friends' meeting-house in Warwick on 19 August 1857. Converted with husband to the Church of England in 1861. Died in 1909.

Author of mathematics textbooks, including "The teaching of elementary mathematics", "Theoretical geometry ", "Further mechanics and hydrostatics."

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Alfred Sidgwick (1850 in Skipton - December 22 1943 in Orchard Trewoofe ) was an English logician and philosopher.

Sidgwick studied at Lincoln College in Oxford. He became known for his analysis of fallacies . His logic is a theory of argumentation. He opposes the formal logic and emphasized the practical benefits that the study of the logic must have. In addition to some own books he published mainly in the philosophical journal Mind. For Sidgwick, the logic is a science in which it comes to distinguishing good from bad arguments, and these arguments in both the communication between several people as well as in the analysis of thinking of an individual play a role.

Sidwick's publications include:

Fallacies. A View of Logic from the Practical Side. 1883; 2. Aufl.: London 1890
Distinction and Criticism of Beliefs. Longmans, Green & Co., London 1892
The Process of Argument: A Contribution to Logic. 1893
The Use of Words in Reasoning. 1901
The Application of Logic.Macmillan, London 1910
Elementary Logic. 1914

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Sidgwick .

(from Wikipedia entry)

Johannes Sieveking (July 6 1869 in Hamburg , September 20th 1942 in Munich ) was a German Classic archaeologist. Johannes Sieveking belonged to the old Hanseatic family Sieveking , who had besides several mayors spawned many professors, senators, diplomats and merchants. He studied at the University of Bonn , then at the University of Berlin and then moved to the University of Munich , where he last pupil of Heinrich Brunn was. After this had passed away, he went together with Adam Flasch at the University of Erlangen , where he in 1894 with the Scriptures The cornucopia of the Romans was awarded his doctorate. Then travels took him to Greece and Italy. After returning Sieveking was briefly assistant at Würzburg Martin-von-Wagner-Museum , but then switched to wish Adolf Furtwängler at the Antiquarium in Munich . After Furtwängler's death in 1907, he took over the management of the Antiquarium and the collection of vases, which he in 1919 in the premises of the Alte Pinakothek was able to unite and regroup. In 1942 he took his own life.

Sieveking lent his particular the Munich Collection of Antiquities. So he ordered the hitherto often neglected large and rich collections of ancient cabaret new. Parts he restored by hand. With Rudolf Hackl he began in 1912 to develop the collection in a series of publications, but she could because of the First World War not be set forth. Were published by him thus in particular acquisitions and smaller reports. In a large four-volume publication also bronzes and has terracotta collection of James Loeb published. Thanks Sieveking Loeb bequeathed his collection including Munich antiquities collection. It was the largest increase in the collection since its inception and included some very high-quality pieces. His main research field of research was the Roman art . He is considered one of the pioneers in this field of research. He researched the Roman portrait, for relief and the architectural ornaments. Above all, he demanded an exact copy of criticism. Sieveking wrote no monographs on his research, but wrote many, mostly short essays, find themselves scattered across many different journals.

Sieveking was described as humble, shy, unassuming and very withdrawn. Literally was his punctuality. Although Munich had become his second home, which he left reluctantly, but he was by nature his whole life Hanseat. He had personal discretion is very important, so his colleagues learned only after years on the occasion of a disease that Sieveking was married. He did not pursue an academic career, but was the only scientist. He never attended lectures and never held any. His work was strictly regulated. In the morning he worked at the Museum, in the afternoon at the Archaeological Department of the University. Ludwig Curtius wrote in an obituary Sieveking " realized in his own way a modern, unromantic, but horazistisches Romanism, not one of the victors and proconsuls , but one of the legacies and military tribunes whose punctual, to the great subordinating them following work also the empire of our science can not exist without ".[translation]

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Sieveking .

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Theologian and biographer (1843-1899). Brother of British classical scholar and poet, George Agusutus Simcox. William wrote the first major biography of Barnabe Barnes, the famous 16th-century poet and patron of William Shakespeare.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Simcox .

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James Gilliland Simpson (16 October 1865 - 10 October 1948) was the Dean of Peterborough in the Church of England from 1928 to 1942.

He was educated at the City of London School and Trinity College, Oxford, he was ordained in 1889 and began his career with a curacy at Leeds Parish Church. He was then appointed Vice Principal of Edinburgh Theological College after which he was Principal of Leeds Clergy School before becoming Canon of Manchester in 1910. Two years later he became a Canon of St Paul's, a post he held for seventeen years before his elevation to the Deanery. He was a noted author.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Simpson_(priest) .

A medical scholar

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Felicia Mary Frances Skene (1821-1899) was a Scottish author, philanthropist and prison reformer in the Victorian era.

Skene used the pseudonym Erskine Moir and was a friend of Florence Nightingale (1820-1910).She was the youngest daughter of James Skene of Rubislaw and his wife, Jane Forbes, daughter of Sir William Forbes, sixth baronet of Pitsligo. She was born on 93 May 1821 at Aix in Provence. As a child, she played with the children of the exiled king, Charles X, at Holyrood ; as a girl she was the guest of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe at the embassy at Constantinople; and later was the friend of, among others, Sir John Franklin, Pusey, Landor, and Aytoun. Her father was a great friend of Sir Walter Scott, and it is said that Miss Skene as a child used to sit on the great novelist's knee and tell him fairy tales. In 1838, the family moved to Greece on account of Mrs. Skene 's health. Skene built a villa near Athens, in which they lived for some time. They returned to England in 1845, and lived first at Leamington and afterwards at Oxford.

Miss Skene was a very accomplished woman and devoted to good works. When, in 1854, cholera broke out at Oxford, she took part, under Sir Henry Acland, in organising a band of nurses. Some of them were sent afterwards to the Crimea, and during the war Miss Skene remained in constant correspondence with Miss Nightingale. She took much interest in rescue work in Oxford, and was one of the first 'lady visitors' appointed by the home office to visit the prison. Some of her experiences were told in a series of articles in Blackwood's Magazine, published in book form in 1889, and entitled Scenes from a Silent World.

Her earliest published work was Isles of Greece, and other Poems, which appeared in 1843. A devotional work, The Divine Master, was published in 1852, memoirs of her cousin Alexander Penrose Forbes, bishop of Brechin, and Alexander Lycurgus, archbishop of the Cyclades, in 1876 and 1877 respectively. In 1866, she published anonymously a book called Hidden Depths. It was republished with her name and an introduction by Mr. W. Shepherd Allen in 1886. Though to all appearance a novel, the author states that it is not a work of fiction in the ordinary acceptation of the term, as she herself witnessed many of the scenes described. She was a constant contributor to the magazines, and edited the Churchman's Companion, 1862-80. She died at 34 St. Michael Street, Oxford, on 6 October 1899.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felicia_Skene .

Dr. J.W. Slaughter was associated with the Sociological Society. According to Nina Cust, Slaughter was born in 1878, was a lecturer on Civic and Sociology at the Rice Institute in Texas and was author of "The Adolescent", "Social Forces in Latin-America" and other works.

Founder of the Christian Kingdom Society.

(from Wikipedia entry)

Edward Adolf Sonnenschein (1851 - 2 Sep 1929, Bath, Somerset) was an English Classical Scholar and writer on Latin grammar and verse. Sonnenschein was educated at University College School and then in 1868 at University College London in 1868.

He was appointed Oxford professor of Greek and Latin at Mason College, Birmingham (afterwards University of Birmingham) in 1883, staying there until 1918. He was a Plautine scholar, publishing editions of Captivi (1879), Mostellaria (1884), and Rudens (1891). He took up the reform of grammar teaching, and published the "Parallel Grammar" series. With John Percival Postgate, he founded the Classical Association in 1903.

Much of his grammatical research was summed up in The Unity of the Latin Subjunctive (1910) and The Soul of Grammar (1927). He insisted upon the humanities taking their proper place in the modern university; and took up the question of war-guilt during the European war; he was a very exact scholar. Sonnenschein was born in London in 1851, the eldest son of a teacher, Adolf Sonnenschein from Moravia (now part of the Czech Republic) and Sarah Robinson Stallybrass. He married Edith Annesley Bolton (1854-1943) and they had three children: Edward Jamie, who later took the surname Somerset; Christopher Edward, who was killed in a mountaineering accident in Switzerland on 22 February 1914 and Edward Oliver, who later took the surname Stallybrass. Because of the hostility to Germans during the First World War, two of his sons changed their surnames to English names. Adolf Sonnenschein's third son, William Swan Sonnenschein born in 1855 (Edwards younger brother) took his second name 'Swan' from the maternal grandfather’s friendship.

As a young man William was apprenticed to the firm of Williams and Norgate, where he gained experience of second hand bookselling before founding his own company, W. Swan Sonnenschein & Allen, with the first of several partners, J. Archibald Allen, in 1878. This partnership was dissolved in 1882 when William married and the firm's name changed to W Swan Sonnenschein & Co. The firm published general literature and periodicals but specialized in sociology and politics. Sonnenschein was involved with the Ethical Society and published their literature.

In 1895 Swan Sonnenschein became a limited liability company, and in 1902 William Swan Sonnenschein left to work at George Routledge and Sons, and later at Kegan Paul. Swan Sonnenschein was amalgamated with George Allen & Co in 1911. He changed his ‘German’ surname during the First World War to Stallybrass. He died in 1934.

Sonnenschein was an influential classical scholar during his time at Mason College between 1883 and 1918, where he wrote prolifically. He edited several plays by Plautus, and collaborated with John Percival Postgate, forming the Classical Association in 1903, becoming its Secretary. He contributed to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica (designated by the initials "E. A. So.").

His views differed from Otto Jespersen (1860-1943) a Danish linguist, which he explained in his 1927 book, The Soul of Grammar, as his answer to Jespersen's 1924 Philosophy of Grammar. C. T. Onions, the last editor of the original Oxford English Dictionary, was one of his pupils.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Adolf_Sonnenschein .

(from Wikipedia entry)

William Ritchie Sorley (4 November 1855 - 28 July 1935) was a Scottish philosopher. A Gifford Lecturer, he was one of the British Idealist school of thinkers, with interests in ethics. William Ritchie Sorley was born in Selkirk, the son of Anna Ritchie and William Sorley, a Free Church of Scotland minister. He was educated at Edinburgh University and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy in the University of Cambridge from 1900 until 1933. He died, aged 79, at Cambridge.

He is now remembered for his A History of British Philosophy to 1900, published in 1920, with its idiosyncratic slant, as a retrospective view from the point of view of British Idealism. Among his other published works are: The Ethics of Naturalism: a Criticism (second edition 1904), The Moral Life and Moral Worth (1911), and his Gifford Lectures Moral Values and the Idea of God (second edition 1921). The poet Charles Sorley was his son.

He is now remembered for his A History of British Philosophy to 1900, published in 1920, with its idiosyncratic slant, as a retrospective view from the point of view of British Idealism. Among his other published works are: The Ethics of Naturalism: a Criticism (second edition 1904), The Moral Life and Moral Worth (1911), and his Gifford Lectures Moral Values and the Idea of God (second edition 1921). The poet Charles Sorley was his son.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ritchie_Sorley .

(from Wikipedia entry)

Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 - 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian era.

Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies. He was "an enthusiastic exponent of evolution" and even "wrote about evolution before Darwin did." As a polymath, he contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion, anthropology, economics, political theory, philosophy, literature, biology, sociology, and psychology. During his lifetime he achieved tremendous authority, mainly in English-speaking academia. "The only other English philosopher to have achieved anything like such widespread popularity was Bertrand Russell, and that was in the 20th century." Spencer was "the single most famous European intellectual in the closing decades of the nineteenth century" but his influence declined sharply after 1900; "Who now reads Spencer?" asked Talcott Parsons in 1937.

Spencer is best known for coining the expression "survival of the fittest", which he did in Principles of Biology (1864), after reading Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. This term strongly suggests natural selection, yet as Spencer extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics, he also made use of Lamarckism. Herbert Spencer was born in Derby, England, on 27 April 1820, the son of William George Spencer (generally called George). Spencer's father was a religious dissenter who drifted from Methodism to Quakerism, and who seems to have transmitted to his son an opposition to all forms of authority. He ran a school founded on the progressive teaching methods of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and also served as Secretary of the Derby Philosophical Society, a scientific society which had been founded in the 1790s by Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles Darwin.

Spencer was educated in empirical science by his father, while the members of the Derby Philosophical Society introduced him to pre-Darwinian concepts of biological evolution, particularly those of Erasmus Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. His uncle, the Reverend Thomas Spencer, vicar of Hinton Charterhouse near Bath, completed Spencer's limited formal education by teaching him some mathematics and physics, and enough Latin to enable him to translate some easy texts. Thomas Spencer also imprinted on his nephew his own firm free-trade and anti-statist political views. Otherwise, Spencer was an autodidact who acquired most of his knowledge from narrowly focused readings and conversations with his friends and acquaintances.

As both an adolescent and a young man Spencer found it difficult to settle to any intellectual or professional discipline. He worked as a civil engineer during the railway boom of the late 1830s, while also devoting much of his time to writing for provincial journals that were nonconformist in their religion and radical in their politics. From 1848 to 1853 he served as sub-editor on the free-trade journal The Economist, during which time he published his first book, Social Statics (1851), which predicted that humanity would eventually become completely adapted to the requirements of living in society with the consequential withering away of the state.

Its publisher, John Chapman, introduced Spencer to his salon which was attended by many of the leading radical and progressive thinkers of the capital, including John Stuart Mill, Harriet Martineau, George Henry Lewes and Mary Ann Evans (George Eliot), with whom he was briefly romantically linked. Spencer himself introduced the biologist Thomas Henry Huxley, who would later win fame as 'Darwin's Bulldog' and who remained his lifelong friend. However it was the friendship of Evans and Lewes that acquainted him with John Stuart Mill's A System of Logic and with Auguste Comte's positivism and which set him on the road to his life's work. He strongly disagreed with Comte.

The first fruit of his friendship with Evans and Lewes was Spencer's second book, Principles of Psychology, published in 1855, which explored a physiological basis for psychology. The book was founded on the fundamental assumption that the human mind was subject to natural laws and that these could be discovered within the framework of general biology. This permitted the adoption of a developmental perspective not merely in terms of the individual (as in traditional psychology), but also of the species and the race. Through this paradigm, Spencer aimed to reconcile the associationist psychology of Mill's Logic, the notion that human mind was constructed from atomic sensations held together by the laws of the association of ideas, with the apparently more 'scientific' theory of phrenology, which located specific mental functions in specific parts of the brain. Spencer argued that both these theories were partial accounts of the truth: repeated associations of ideas were embodied in the formation of specific strands of brain tissue, and these could be passed from one generation to the next by means of the Lamarckian mechanism of use-inheritance. The Psychology, he believed, would do for the human mind what Isaac Newton had done for matter. However, the book was not initially successful and the last of the 251 copies of its first edition was not sold until June 1861.

Spencer's interest in psychology derived from a more fundamental concern which was to establish the universality of natural law. In common with others of his generation, including the members of Chapman's salon, he was possessed with the idea of demonstrating that it was possible to show that everything in the universe - including human culture, language, and morality - could be explained by laws of universal validity. This was in contrast to the views of many theologians of the time who insisted that some parts of creation, in particular the human soul, were beyond the realm of scientific investigation. Comte's Système de Philosophie Positive had been written with the ambition of demonstrating the universality of natural law, and Spencer was to follow Comte in the scale of his ambition. However, Spencer differed from Comte in believing it was possible to discover a single law of universal application which he identified with progressive development and was to call the principle of evolution. In 1858 Spencer produced an outline of what was to become the System of Synthetic Philosophy. This immense undertaking, which has few parallels in the English language, aimed to demonstrate that the principle of evolution applied in biology, psychology, sociology (Spencer appropriated Comte's term for the new discipline) and morality. Spencer envisaged that this work of ten volumes would take twenty years to complete; in the end it took him twice as long and consumed almost all the rest of his long life.

Despite Spencer's early struggles to establish himself as a writer, by the 1870s he had become the most famous philosopher of the age. His works were widely read during his lifetime, and by 1869 he was able to support himself solely on the profit of book sales and on income from his regular contributions to Victorian periodicals which were collected as three volumes of Essays. His works were translated into German, Italian, Spanish, French, Russian, Japanese and Chinese, and into many other languages and he was offered honors and awards all over Europe and North America. He also became a member of the Athenaeum, an exclusive Gentleman's Club in London open only to those distinguished in the arts and sciences, and the X Club, a dining club of nine founded by T.H. Huxley that met every month and included some of the most prominent thinkers of the Victorian age (three of whom would become presidents of the Royal Society).

Members included physicist-philosopher John Tyndall and Darwin's cousin, the banker and biologist Sir John Lubbock. There were also some quite significant satellites such as liberal clergyman Arthur Stanley, the Dean of Westminster; and guests such as Charles Darwin and Hermann von Helmholtz were entertained from time to time. Through such associations, Spencer had a strong presence in the heart of the scientific community and was able to secure an influential audience for his views. Despite his growing wealth and fame he never owned a house of his own.

The last decades of Spencer's life were characterized by growing disillusionment and loneliness. He never married, and after 1855 was a perpetual hypochondriac who complained endlessly of pains and maladies that no physician could diagnose.[citation needed] By the 1890s his readership had begun to desert him while many of his closest friends died and he had come to doubt the confident faith in progress that he had made the center-piece of his philosophical system. His later years were also ones in which his political views became increasingly conservative. Whereas Social Statics had been the work of a radical democrat who believed in votes for women (and even for children) and in the nationalization of the land to break the power of the aristocracy, by the 1880s he had become a staunch opponent of female suffrage and made common cause with the landowners of the Liberty and Property Defence League against what they saw as the drift towards 'socialism' of elements (such as Sir William Harcourt) within the administration of William Ewart Gladstone - largely against the opinions of Gladstone himself. Spencer's political views from this period were expressed in what has become his most famous work, The Man versus the State. The exception to Spencer's growing conservativism was that he remained throughout his life an ardent opponent of imperialism and militarism. His critique of the Boer War was especially scathing, and it contributed to his declining popularity in Britain.[12]

Spencer also invented a precursor to the modern paper clip, though it looked more like a modern cotter pin. This "binding-pin" was distributed by Ackermann & Company. Spencer shows drawings of the pin in Appendix I (following Appendix H) of his autobiography along with published descriptions of its uses.

In 1902, shortly before his death, Spencer was nominated for the Nobel Prize for literature. He continued writing all his life, in later years often by dictation, until he succumbed to poor health at the age of 83. His ashes are interred in the eastern side of London's Highgate Cemetery facing Karl Marx's grave. At Spencer's funeral the Indian nationalist leader Shyamji Krishnavarma announced a donation of £1,000 to establish a lectureship at Oxford University in tribute to Spencer and his work.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Spencer .

(from Wikipedia entry)

John Alfred Spender (23 December 1862 - 21 June 1942) was a British journalist, newspaper editor, and author. He is best known for serving as the editor of the London newspaper the Westminster Gazette from 1896 until 1922. Spender was the eldest of four sons born to John Kent Spender, a doctor, and his wife, the novelist Lillian Spender. He was educated at Bath College and Balliol College, Oxford, where he did well in his studies but missed a first in Greats due to illness.

Though Benjamin Jowett, the Master of Balliol, suggested that Spender become a lawyer, Spender sought out a career in journalism instead. In this he had the assistance of his uncle William Saunders, who owned the Western and Eastern Morning News as well as the Central News Ageny. After a brief period as Saunders's secretary, Spender was offered a position as a leader writer for The Echo by John Passmore Edwards, though their relationship proved difficult and Spender left after only five months in the post.

It was at this point in 1886 that Saunders offered his nephew the editorship of the struggling Hull newspaper Eastern Morning News. Spender eagerly accepted and spent a little more than four years in the post. As the editor of a provincial daily, Spender undertook whatever jobs were necessary, serving as sales manager, leader writer, reporter, and critic. Through his efforts the paper returned to profitability, only to then be sold by Saunders in February 1891. Spender returned to London, where he worked as a freelance contributor to a number of papers and wrote his book, a tract on old-age pensions that won him the friendship of John Morley.

In June 1892 Spender received an offer from E. T. Cook, the editor of the Liberal evening newspaper the Pall Mall Gazette, to work as his assistant editor. Spender gladly accepted, only to be let go a month later when the Pall Mall Gazette was sold to William Waldorf Astor, who changed its party allegiance to the Unionists. Though the newly married Spender was unemployed once more, he was quickly rehired by Cook when the editor started a new Liberal evening paper, the Westminster Gazette, in January 1893. Cook served as editor until 1896, when he resigned his position to take over as editor of the Liberal Daily News. Though a number of prominent individuals applied to succeed him, the owner of the Westminster Gazette, George Newnes, decided to offer the editorship to Spender, then only thirty-three years of age. Though Spender himself was modest about his prospects, his selection was met with approval by many in the Liberal ranks, including the head of the party Lord Rosebery.

Under Spender's direction, the Westminster Gazette never had a wide circulation, nor did it make a profit. Nonetheless it was the most influential evening newspaper in Britain, for which Spender received the credit. The veteran editor Frederick Greenwood regarded the Westminster Gazette under Spender as "the best edited paper in London," and his leaders became essential reading for politicians on both sides of the political aisle. In them his priority was Liberal unity. He balanced ideological expression in the pages of his paper, avoiding the polemical heights attained by his counterparts in other Liberal publications. Though this occasionally earned him the ire of both Liberal factions in a debate, his loyalty to the Liberal leadership was rewarded with their confidences, which provided him with invaluable insight into the inner workings of contemporary politics.

Spender greatly valued his editorial independence, which was never an issue with the Gazette's owner, George Newnes. When Newnes sold the paper in 1908 to a consortium of Liberal businessmen and politicians led by Alfred Mond, however, Spender found his cherished independence under pressure. Only internal disagreement within the ownership group saved Spender from dismissal. The dispute hurt staff morale, while the start of the First World War led several important staff members to leave for service in the armed forces. A growing decline in circulation and revenue led Spender and the owners to undertake the radical move of switching from an evening to a morning publication in November 1921. The new paper, however, was no longer a vehicle for the sort of reflective journalism characteristic of Spender, and he resigned from his position in February 1922. Spender's departure from the Westminster Gazette also meant his departure from journalism, as he how pursued a new career as an author. Over the next two decades, he wrote a number of books on nonfiction subjects, including histories, travelogues, biographies, and memoirs. His most prominent works were two biographies of Liberal party leaders, the former prime ministers Henry Campbell Bannerman and Herbert Henry Asquith, and a memoir of his Life Journalism and Politics. He also served on a number of public commissions and inquiries, and after refusing public honors three previous times he accepted an appointment as a Companion of Honour. He also remained involved in Liberal politics, though his influence was much diminished with the decline of the Liberal Party in the interwar period, while his concern about the insufficiency of British armaments led many to brand Spender as an appeaser in the run-up to the Second World War. Spender died in June 1942 after a long illness.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Alfred_Spender .

(from article by Alison M. Lewis, Ph.D.)

Caroline Emelia Stephen (1834-1909) was the youngest of this generation of Stephen siblings and the only girl. There are two distinctive and contradictory portraits of her that emerge. The first has its roots in Leslie Stephen’s book of family remembrances, The Mausoleum Book, in which he writes that Caroline’s health was damaged and her life ruined by an unrequited love who left and died in India (54-5). We are indebted to feminist scholar Jane Marcus for being the first to look at Caroline Stephen seriously in the realm of Woolf criticism. Marcus put forth an alternative viewpoint, espoused by Woolf herself, that Caroline’s ill health was rather due to the fact that she played the role of "a dutiful Victorian daughter and sister, nursing at the sickbeds and deathbeds of her family" ("Niece," 15). Woolf recognized in her aunt the same pattern played out in the lives of her own mother and half-sister and stated in her aunt’s obituary that "attendance upon her mother during her last long illness injured her health so seriously that she never fully recovered" (Marcus, "Thinking," 29).

Caroline’s mother died in 1875; Caroline suffered another collapse the same year while caring for Leslie and his daughter following the death of his first wife. It is perhaps not surprising that Leslie Stephen might have been eager to shift some of the blame for Caroline’s broken health from himself to a mythical lover. Even more damaging is the fact that he makes every effort to denigrate Caroline’s writing. Her work is "little" he says, perhaps in contrast to his own "big" work. He misnames Quaker Strongholds in his memoir as Strongholds of Quakerism, and calls it "another little work of hers" (Mausoleum, 55). Caroline most likely found a number of other benefits in her involvement with Friends: the lack of priests and paid ministers avoided the hierarchical structure of other established religions; her own religious authority was both valued and encouraged by Friends; and she entered a tradition which, from the time of its founding in the mid-1600s, had accepted in principle and often in practice, the equality of women.

For more information see article by Lewis, Ph.D. at: http://www.quaker.org/quest/issue3-3.html and Wikipedia article at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_Stephen .

Gustav Spiller (1864 - February 1940) was a Hungarian-born ethical and sociological writer who was active in Ethical Societies in the United Kingdom. He helped to organize the First Universal Races Congress in 1911. Born in Budapest to a Jewish family, Gustav Spiller came to London in 1885 and gained work as a compositor. Influenced by Stanton Coit, until 1901 he worked as a printer work for the Bank of England for six months every year, using the rest of his time for self-education. In 1901 he became a lecturer for the Ethical movement, and in 1904 the salaried secretary of the International Union of Ethical Societies.

Spiller and Felix Adler organized the International Congress of Moral Education, held at the University of London in September 1908. There Spiller promoted the idea of a Universal Races Congress, which took place in London in 1911 with financial support from John E. Milholland.

By 1920 Spiller had joined the Labour Office of the League of Nations in Geneva.

Luigi Nasato (20 Nov. 1924 – 18 Dec. 2014) was an Italian-Canadian mosaicist, painter and commercial illustrator. Nasato was born to Ettore Nasato and Caterina Girotto in Istrana, Italy, where he attended the Commerical School of Treviso. In 1941, he entered the State Institute of Art in Venice, Italy, specializing in painting and decorating. While at the Institute, Nasato earned a Master’s degree in Art and, in 1947, a teaching diploma in Pictorial Arts. In 1951, he emigrated to Argentina and worked for three years as a fine decorator in a ceramics factory. He subsequently co-founded the ceramic dinnerware company, Hanacoer, on the outskirts of Buenos Aires, where he worked as a decorator for several years. In 1959, Nasato emigrated to Toronto. He was hired as a designer in mosaics at Conn Arts Studio, a position he left in 1965 for a similar position at De Montford Studio. He subsequently worked as a technical illustrator at Douglas Aircraft from 1971 to 1976 and as a designer for Classic Mouldings from 1976 to 1989. Nasato was granted Canadian citizenship in 1976. He retired in 1989 at the age of 65. Throughout his career, he created and collaborated on church mosaics throughout Toronto and environs. His work can be seen in: Our Lady of the Airways and St. Michael’s Ukranian churches in Mississauga; ; St. Eugene’s church in Hamilton; St. Michael’s Hospital chapel, Church of the Holy Name, Our Lady of Sorrows, St. John Bosco, St. Clare of Assisi, St. Peter’s, St. Edward’s, and St. Wilfrid’s churches in Toronto; among others. His Monumento ai Caduti, a public panel mosaic commemorating fallen soldiers, stands on display in his native Istrana. He was awarded multiple times for his artistic contribution by the Treviso nel Mondo and named a "Premio Eccellenze Venete nel Mundo" by the Regione del Veneto in 2014.

Nasato married Elena Fantin on July 24, 1954. They had two daughters, Silvia Eisner and Rosalba Stragier.

Julia Stephen (nee Jackson) (1846-1895) was born in Calcutta, India to Dr. John Jackson (1804-1887) and his wife Maria Pattle Jackson (1818-1892). The youngest of three, Julia had two sisters, Adeline Maria Vaughan (1837-1881) and Mary Louisa Fisher (1840-1916).
The family moved back to England in 1848.

One of her aunts, Sara (1816-1867), married the Victorian politician and historian Henry Thoby Prinsep, whose home at Little Holland House was an important meeting place for writers, painters, and politicians. As the niece and goddaughter of photographer Julia Margaret Cameron, Julia became a the subject of several of her aunt's works. She was a favourite model of the Pre-Raphaelites and sat for Burne-Jones and G.F. Watts. She became a member of the artistic circle which gathered at Little Holland House.

Julia married Herbert Duckworth (1833-1870) on 4 May 1867. They had three children: George Herbert (1868); Stella (1869-1897) and Gerald de l'Etang (1870-1937). Herbert Duckworth died suddenly in 1870 at the age of 37.

Julia was introduced by her friend Anne Thackeray to Leslie Stephen, who at the time was married to Anne's sister Harriet. After the loss of his own spouse in 1875, the two became close and married in 1879. They had four children: Vanessa (1879–1961) married Clive Bell; Thoby (1880–1906); Virginia (1882–1941) married Leonard Woolf; and Adrian (1883–1948).

Julia was known for her care for the sick and dying. She travelled around London, working in hospitals and workhouses. She published Notes from Sick Rooms in 1883. She signed a petition against female suffrage in 1889, believing that a woman's role in society should be limited to philanthropy and the home.

She died of rheumatic fever in 1895.

(from Wikipedia entry)

Sir Leslie Stephen, KCB (28 November 1832 - 22 February 1904) was an English author, critic and mountaineer, and the father of Virginia Woolf and Vanessa Bell. Stephen was born at Kensington Gore in London, the brother of James Fitzjames Stephen and son of Sir James Stephen. His family had belonged to the Clapham Sect, the early 19th century group of mainly evangelical Christian social reformers. At his father's house he saw a good deal of the Macaulays, James Spedding, Sir Henry Taylor and Nassau Senior. After studying at Eton College, King's College London and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. (20th wrangler) in 1854 and M.A. in 1857, Stephen remained for several years a fellow and tutor of his college. He recounted some of his experiences in a chapter in his Life of Fawcett as well as in some less formal Sketches from Cambridge: By a Don (1865). These sketches were reprinted from the Pall Mall Gazette, to the proprietor of which, George Smith, he had been introduced by his brother. It was at Smith's house at Hampstead that Stephen met his first wife, Harriet Marian (1840-1875), daughter of William Makepeace Thackeray, with whom he had a daughter, Laura Makepeace Stephen (1870-1945); after her death he married Julia Prinsep Jackson (1846-1895), widow of Herbert Duckworth. With her he had four children: Vanessa (1879-1961) married Clive Bell
Thoby (1880-1906)
Virginia (1882-1941) married Leonard Woolf
Adrian (1883-1948)
In the 1850s, Stephen and his brother James Fitzjames Stephen were invited by Frederick Denison Maurice to lecture at The Working Men's College. Leslie Stephen became a member of the College's governing College Corporation.

Stephen was an Honorary Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and received the honorary degree Doctor of Letters (D. Litt.) from the University of Cambridge and from the University of Oxford (November 1901).

He died in Kensington. While at Cambridge, Stephen became an Anglican clergyman. In 1865, having renounced his religious beliefs, and after a visit to the United States two years earlier, where he had formed lasting friendships with Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., James Russell Lowell and Charles Eliot Norton, he settled in London and became a journalist, eventually editing the Cornhill Magazine in 1871 where R. L. Stevenson, Thomas Hardy, W. E. Norris, Henry James, and James Payn figured among his contributors.

In his spare time, he participated in athletics and mountaineering. He also contributed to the Saturday Review, Fraser, Macmillan, the Fortnightly, and other periodicals. He was already known as a climber, as a contributor to Peaks, Passes and Glaciers (1862), and as one of the earliest presidents of the Alpine Club, when, in 1871, in commemoration of his own first ascents in the Alps, he published The Playground of Europe, which immediately became a mountaineering classic, drawing—together with Whymper's Scrambles Amongst the Alps—successive generations of its readers to the Alps.

During the eleven years of his editorship, in addition to three volumes of critical studies, he made two valuable contributions to philosophical history and theory. The first was The History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century (1876 and 1881). This work was generally recognised as an important addition to philosophical literature and led immediately to Stephen's election at the Athenaeum Club in 1877. The second was The Science of Ethics (1882). It was extensively adopted as a textbook on the subject and made him the best-known proponent of evolutionary ethics in late-nineteenth-century Britain.

Stephen also served as the first editor (1885–91) of the Dictionary of National Biography.

He was President of the Alpine Club from 1865–1868.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Stephen .

(from Wikipedia entry)

Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (13 December 1815 - 18 July 1881) was an English churchman, Dean of Westminster, known as Dean Stanley. His position was that of a Broad Churchman and he was the author of works on Church History.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Stanley_(priest) .

(from Oxford Dictionary of Biography entry by K.D. Reynolds)

Stanley [née Bruce], Lady Augusta Elizabeth Frederica (1822-1876), courtier, was born on 3 April 1822, the daughter of Thomas Bruce, seventh earl of Elgin and eleventh earl of Kincardine (1766-1841), diplomatist, and his second wife, Elizabeth Oswald (1790-1860). She had four brothers and two sisters as well as a half-brother and three half-sisters, and on the death of their father the large family was left impoverished. The earl and his family had been living for some time in Paris, and it was there that his widow continued to make a home for her family. Lady Elgin was a woman of culture and learning (especially in mathematics), and the intelligentsia gathered at her Paris salon in the rue de Lille. Lack of money and the need for a secure home led Lady Augusta to accept the offer of a place in the household of the duchess of Kent, Queen Victoria's mother, and in 1846 she served her first term as lady-in-waiting. The exuberant and sympathetic yet profoundly religious Lady Augusta swept through the elderly and rather staid household at Frogmore like a breath of fresh air: with her connections in France, and her large family of siblings seeking their fortunes in different spheres and parts of the globe, she brought the outside world into the enclosed court. She soon came to occupy the place of a daughter in the duchess's affections, especially after Lady Elgin died in 1860, and remained with the duchess until the latter's death in March 1861.

Service in the duchess of Kent's household had brought Lady Augusta into regular contact with the queen, and especially with the queen's children, and following the duchess's death Victoria invited her to join her own household .

Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (1815–1881), a leader of the broad church, was a canon of Christ Church, Oxford. He was well known to the Bruces and to the court, but it came as a surprise to Lady Augusta when their relations promoted a marriage between them: she had never ‘looked on [Stanley] in such a light, or dreamt of [him] as other than the most valued, trusted and admired friend’ (Letters, 292).

None the less, their mutual reticence was overcome and their engagement announced. The queen was furious. ‘My dear Lady Augusta, at 41, without a previous long attachment, has, most unnecessarily, decided to marry (!!)’ she wrote to her uncle, King Leopold of the Belgians (Gernsheim and Gernsheim, 143). She was eventually, if grudgingly, reconciled to the match, and on 22 December 1863 the wedding took place. Stanley took up his appointment as dean of Westminster shortly afterwards, and it was at the deanery that Lady Augusta was to make her home for the rest of her life.

At last settled in a home of her own, Lady Augusta Stanley revelled in her new duties. The deanery became something of a salon, where the church mixed with the intelligentsia and the politicians. Dean Stanley's politics were Liberal, but Lady Augusta's roots were tory, and politicians of all persuasions, British and continental, were to be met at the deanery, alongside scientists, artists, and writers. And Lady Augusta retained her connections with the court. On her marriage she was appointed extra woman of the bedchamber, and she was frequently in attendance on the queen. But now the most important service she provided for the queen was that of connecting her to the world, for Victoria was in the depths of her secluded widowhood. Lady Augusta, who travelled widely with her husband, constantly wrote to the queen about people and places, hoping always to draw her attention outward from her grief, and mindful always of the jeopardy in which the monarchy would stand if Victoria's popularity sunk too low. A particular project was to encourage the queen to visit Ireland; Lady Augusta was firmly of the belief that ‘if it had been Ireland she had visited and settled on, instead of Aberdeenshire—the ecstacies and interests that would have grown up would have been just as great—and fenianism would never have existed’ (Later Letters, 65). Only once did the queen invite herself to meet company at Lady Augusta's salon, on 4 March 1869, the guests being George and Harriet Grote, Sir Charles and Lady Lyell, Robert Browning, and Thomas Carlyle. The event was a mixed success, for although the queen found them ‘very agreeable’ (G. E. Buckle, ed., The Letters of Queen Victoria, 2nd ser., 3 vols., 1926, 1.587), she was never at ease in the company of the learned, and the experiment was not repeated.

In January 1874 the Stanleys travelled to Russia, where the dean was to perform the English ceremony at the marriage of Prince Alfred, duke of Edinburgh, with Grand Duchess Marie of Russia, at which Lady Augusta was one of the representatives of the queen. The journey marked the beginning of Lady Augusta's physical decline, for her health, long taxed by her devotion to her duties, never recovered. For some time she struggled to maintain her activities, attending the arrival of the new duchess of Edinburgh at Windsor, and keeping up her flow of cheerful letters. A trip to France in the autumn of 1874 led not to improved health but a case of ‘Roman fever’. Throughout 1875 she grew weaker, and on 1 March 1876 she died at the deanery, from ‘progressive muscular atrophy’ (d. cert.); her eventual physical weakness had been such that she was unable to sign her will on 19 February. She was buried on 9 March in Henry VII's chapel in Westminster Abbey. Her coffin bearers included an archbishop, a bishop, two dukes, and the poet Tennyson. The queen's usual encomium after the death of one of her household this time held real affection: ‘She was such a help in so many ways, so sympathising, loving and kind, so attached to me and mine, so clever and agreeable, known to so many. She used to write such interesting letters and knew so many interesting people. It was always a treat to me when she came’ (Later Letters, 274). If the loss of Lady Augusta to the queen was great, to Arthur Stanley, who had come late to marriage, it was immeasurable; his nephew commented, ‘The light had gone out of his life’ (ibid., 16).

Sources

Letters of Lady Augusta Stanley: a young lady at court, 1849–1863, ed. A. V. Baillie and H. Bolitho (1927) · Later letters of Lady Augusta Stanley, 1864–1876, ed. A. V. Baillie and H. Bolitho [1929] · W. A. Lindsay, The royal household (1898) · H. Gernsheim and A. Gernsheim, Queen Victoria (1959) · S. Weintraub, Victoria: biography of a queen (1987) · Darling child: private correspondence of Queen Victoria and the crown princess of Prussia, 1871–1878, ed. R. Fulford (1976) · K. D. Reynolds, Aristocratic women and political society in Victorian Britain (1998) · m. cert. · d. cert. · Burke, Peerage (1901) · will · CGPLA Eng. & Wales (1876)

For more information see Oxford Dictionary of National Biography at : http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/printable/41342 . Note: access requires Passport York).

(from Wikipedia entry)

George Slythe Street (18 July 1867 - 31 October 1936) was a British critic, journalist and novelist. He was born in Wimbledon, London on 18 July 1867. He was associated with William Ernest Henley and the 'counter-Decadents' on the staff of the National Observer. His works were characterized by "whimsy, detachment, sympathy, tenderness, satire, humor, and occasionally cynicism". Street's satirical works assailed "snobbery, hypocrisy, vulgarity, and pretentiousness at all levels of society, especially among the aesthetes and the upper class". He is perhaps best known for his 1894 novel, the Autobiography of a Boy, which satirized contemporary aesthetes Oscar Wilde and Lord Alfred Douglas, although Street would later write favorably of Wilde's De Profundis. He died on 31 October 1936.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._S._Street .

Wife of George Slythe Street.

(from Wikipedia entry)

George Frederick Stout (G. F. Stout) (1860, South Shields - 18 August 1944, Sydney) was a leading English philosopher and psychologist. Born in South Shields, he studied psychology at Cambridge University from under James Ward. Like Ward, Stout employed a philosophical approach to psychology and opposed the theory of associationism.

It was as a fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge (1884-96), that Stout published his first work in 1896: the two-volume Analytic Psychology, whose view of the role of activity in intellectual processes was later verified experimentally by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Stout was appointed to a new lectureship in Comparative Psychology at the University of Aberdeen in 1896, before becoming reader in mental philosophy at the University of Oxford (1898-1902), where he published his Manual of Psychology in 1899. This work formulated many principles later developed experimentally by the Gestalt school of psychology. Leaving Oxford, from 1903 to 1936, Stout served as professor of logic and metaphysics at St. Andrews, Fife, where he published another major work, Mind and Matter in 1931. He remained at St. Andrews until his retirement thirty years later, in 1936.

Upon his retirement, George Frederick Stout left for Australia to be with his son. He died in Sydney in 1944.

Over the course of his career, Stout taught a number of notable students, including G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell at Cambridge University. In addition, from 1891 to 1920, he served as editor of Mind, a leading philosophical journal, and was president of Aristotelian Society from 1899 to 1904.

For more information see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Stout .

(from Wikipedia entry)

Herbert Augustus Strong (24 November 1841 - 13 January 1918) was an Australian scholar, professor of comparative philology and logic at the University of Melbourne. trong was born at Clyst St Mary near Exeter, England the third son of Rev. Edmond Strong and his wife Sarah, née Forbes-Coulson.

Strong was educated at Winchester School and Corpus Christi College, Oxford, graduating B.A. in 1863 having taken a first-class in classical moderations the year before. From 1866-71 Strong was assistant to professor of humanity, George Ramsay, at the University of Glasgow, and was the first warden of University Hall, University of Glasgow. In 1872 Strong was appointed professor of classical and comparative philology and logic at the University of Melbourne, replacing Martin Howy Irving. Strong's opportunities were not great as the university was still young, there being then four other professors and fewer than 150 full-time students; ten years later the students still numbered under 300. Strong, however, identified himself with the life of the university, encouraged athletics and the formation of a university spirit. Strong also advocated the cultivation of French and German in addition to the classics. In 1884 Strong became professor of Latin at the newly founded University College in Liverpool and held the chair until his retirement in 1909. While at Liverpool he was president of the Liverpool Royal Institution and Liverpool guild of education, president of the French Society of Liverpool, and president of the University Athletic Club for 20 years. Strong was examiner of secondary schools for the Scottish education department for 20 years. In addition to minor educational works and editions of Latin poets Catullus and Juvenal, Strong wrote with Kuno Meyer an Outline of a History of the German Language (1886), and with W. S. Logeman and B. I. Wheeler an Introduction to the Study of the History of Language (1891). Strong died in England on 13 January 1918. He was given the honorary degree of LL.D. at Glasgow in 1890. Strong was married twice: to Helen Campbell Edmiston and Isobel, née White. Strong was survived by two sons, one of who was Sir Archibald Strong.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Strong .

Born Isabella Ker in 1855, married to Professor George Frederick Stout.
The couple had one son, Alan Ker Stout.
She died in St. Andrews in 1935.

(from Wikipedia entry_

John St Loe Strachey (9 February 1860-1927), was a British journalist and newspaper proprietor.

Strachey was the second son of Sir Edward Strachey, 3rd Baronet, and his wife Mary Isabella (née Symonds), and the brother of Edward Strachey, 1st Baron Strachie, and Henry Strachey. He was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, and later called to the Bar, but chose to take up journalism as his profession. Between 1887 and 1925, he was editor of The Spectator. He was a close friend and confidant of the diplomat, Sir Cecil Spring Rice, with whom he corresponded for many years.

Strachey's son John became a Labour politician and government minister.

His daughter Amabel married the architect Clough Williams-Ellis.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Strachey_(journalist) .

(from Wikipedia entry)

George Johnstone Stoney (15 February 1826 - 5 July 1911) was an Anglo-Irish physicist. He is most famous for introducing the term electron as the "fundamental unit quantity of electricity". He had introduced the concept, though not the word, as early as 1874 and 1881, and the word came in 1891. He published around 75 scientific papers during his lifetime. Stoney was born at Oakley Park, near Birr, County Offaly, in the Irish Midlands, the son of George Stoney (1792-) and Anne Blood (1801-1883). The Stoney family is an old-established Anglo-Irish family. He attended Trinity College, Dublin, graduating with a B.A. in 1848. From 1848 to 1852 he worked as an astronomy assistant to William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse at Birr Castle, County Offaly, where Parsons had built the world's largest telescope, the 72-inch Leviathan of Parsonstown. Simultaneously Stoney continued to study physics and mathematics and was awarded an M.A. by Trinity College Dublin in 1852.

From 1852 to 1857 he was professor of physics at Queen's College Galway. From 1857 to 1882 he was employed as Secretary of the Queen's University of Ireland, an administrative job based in Dublin. In the early 1880s he moved to the post of superintendent of Civil Service Examinations in Ireland, a post he held until his retirement in 1893. In that year, he took up residence in London. Stoney died in 1911 at his home in Notting Hill, London. During his decades of non-scientific employment responsibilities in Dublin, Stoney continued to do scientific research on his own. He also served for decades as honorary secretary and then vice-president of the Royal Dublin Society, a scientific society modelled after the Royal Society of London, and after his move to London Stoney served on the council of that society too. Additionally he intermittently served on scientific review committees of the British Association for the Advancement of Science from the early 1860s on. Stoney published seventy-five scientific papers in a variety of journals, but chiefly in the journals of the Royal Dublin Society. He made significant contributions to cosmic physics and to the theory of gases. He estimated the number of molecules in a cubic millimetre of gas, at room temperature and pressure, from data obtained from the kinetic theory of gases. Stoney's most important scientific work was the conception and calculation of the magnitude of the "atom of electricity". In 1891, he proposed the term 'electron' to describe the fundamental unit of electrical charge, and his contributions to research in this area laid the foundations for the eventual discovery of the particle by J.J. Thomson in 1897.

He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1861 on the basis of being the author of papers on "The Propagation of Waves," - "On the Rings seen in Fibrous Specimens of Calc Spar," and Molecular Physics, published in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, et cetera, Distinguished for his acquaintance with the science of Astronomy & General Physics. Stoney married his cousin, Margaret Sophia Stoney, by whom he had had two sons and three daughters. For most of his decades in Dublin, Stoney resided in the Dundrum, Dublin neighbourhood. The street that he lived on was later renamed Stoney Road in his memory. After Stoney died in London, his cremated ashes were buried in St. Nahi's Church in Dundrum.

One of Stoney's sons, George Gerald Stoney, was a scientist. But a more scientifically notable relative was Stoney's nephew, the Dublin-based physicist George FitzGerald (1851-1901). Stoney and FitzGerald were in regular communication on scientific matters. In addition, on political matters, both Stoney and FitzGerald were active opponents of the Irish Home Rule Movement. In their political opinion, the spirit of Irish Home Rule and later Irish nationalism was contrary to the spirit of science. Stoney resigned from his job as Secretary of Queen's University of Ireland in 1882 in objection to a government decision to introduce "sectarianism" into the system; i.e., Stoney wanted to keep the system non-denominational, but the government acceded to Irish Catholic demands for Catholic institutions.

Craters on Mars and the Moon are named in his honour.

His brother Bindon Blood Stoney was Engineer of Dublin Port is renowned for building a number of the main Dublin bridges, and developing the Quayside, as well as other engineering projects.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Johnstone_Stoney .

(from Wikipedia entry)

William Francis Cowper-Temple, 1st Baron Mount Temple PC (13 December 1811 - 16 October 1888), known as William Cowper (pronounced "Cooper") before 1869 and as William Cowper-Temple between 1869 and 1880, was a British Liberal Party politician and statesman. ord Mount Temple was twice married. He married firstly Harriet Alicia, daughter of Daniel Gurney, in 1843. After her early death the same year, he married secondly, in 1848, Georgiana Tollemache, daughter of Admiral John Richard Delap Tollemache, and a sister of the 1st Baron Tollemache. Both marriages were childless. He died in October 1888, aged 76.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cowper-Temple,_1st_Baron_Mount_Temple .

(from Wikipedia entry)

Edward Stuart Talbot (19 February 1844 - 30 January 1934) was an Anglican bishop in the Church of England and the first Warden of Keble College, Oxford. He was educated at Charterhouse School until 1858. In 1862 he went up to Christ Church, Oxford and graduated in 1865. He remained there until 1869 as modern history tutor. In 1869 he was appointed first warden of Keble College, Oxford, and he stayed there until 1888 when he accepted the post of Vicar of Leeds Parish Church, where he remained for six years (1889-1895). While still in Oxford he and his wife were the founders of Lady Margaret Hall, the first hall for women, in 1878. He then held the posts of Bishops of Rochester, of Southwark and of Winchester. Farnham Castle was the traditional home of the Bishops of Winchester. His father was the Hon. John Chetwynd-Talbot, son of Charles Chetwynd-Talbot, 2nd Earl Talbot, and his mother was Caroline Jane Stuart-Wortley, daughter of James Stuart-Wortley, 1st Baron Wharncliffe.
He married the Hon. Lavinia Lyttelton (born 10 October 1849), daughter of George Lyttelton, 4th Baron Lyttelton and Mary née Glynne, on 29 June 1870. Their children were:
-Mary Catherine Talbot (2 October 1875 - 2 September 1957) who married Lionel Ford
-Revd Edward Keble Talbot (31 December 1877 - 21 October 1949)
-Rt Revd Neville Talbot, Bishop of Pretoria (21 August 1879 - 3 April 1943)
-Lavinia Caroline Talbot (15 April 1882 - 30 September 1950)
-Gilbert Walter Lyttelton Talbot (1 September 1891 - 30 July 1915, killed in action at Ypres). The Hall and Library block of Lady Margaret Hall was named the Talbot Building after him: it was opened in 1910.
The Talbot Fund at Keble College, established in 1999, also bears his name.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Talbot_(bishop) .

Could be one of two women.

Lord Mount Temple was twice married. He married firstly Harriet Alicia, daughter of Daniel Gurney, in 1843. After her early death the same year, he married secondly, in 1848, Georgiana Tollemache, daughter of Admiral John Richard Delap Tollemache, and a sister of the 1st Baron Tollemache.

(from Wikipedia entry)

Neville Stuart Talbot (1879 - 1943) was Bishop of Pretoria in the Anglican Church of Southern Africa and later a robust vicar of St. Mary's Church, Nottingham and assistant Bishop of Southwell who turned down the chance to be Bishop of Croydon. He was born at Keble College, Oxford, and died at Henfield, Sussex. He was the third child and second son of his parents. His father, Edward Stuart Talbot, a younger son of a younger son of the house of Shrewsbury was the first Warden of Keble College, Oxford, and later Vicar of Leeds, and thereafter successively Bishop of Rochester, Southwark and Winchester. His mother was the third daughter of Lord Lyttelton and a member therefore of the large family which laid its characteristic mark on various departments of English life.

Neville had two brothers, the elder of whom, Edward, was to join the Community of the Resurrection, and the younger, Gilbert, was to be killed in action in the Ypres Salient in 1915. Of his sisters, May married Lionel Ford, the Headmaster of Repton and Harrow and later Dean of York, while Lavinia was after his wife's death to keep house for him and bring up his children. When Neville was nine his father moved to Leeds. Neville attended the Grammar School, and then was at Haileybury from 1892 to 1899. He joined the Army in 1898, just in time for the Boer War. Military life had an attraction for certain sides of Neville's character. It appealed to a certain simplicity in him and the need for courage. Neville was inclined to go straight at things, without weighing the risk. He blurted out untimely truths. The discipline of the Army did not affect him much. The Boer War was not a very good school for that. Much of it was like a shooting party, and the hazardous self-exposure in the clear air of the veldt remained his first taste of danger. Neville went up to Christ Church, Oxford, in October 1903. While at Oxford, he played one first-class cricket match for Oxford University as a lower-order batsman and opening bowler. In the winter of 1907 he went to Cuddesdon for his ordination training. Talbot was made deacon at Ripon Cathedral on 14 June 1908. He was an assistant curate at St. Bartholomew's Church, Armley, from 1908 to 1909. He was ordained priest in Lent 1909 and went to be Chaplain of Balliol College, Oxford, in October. During the World War I he served as a military chaplain (4th Class), he was later Assistant Chaplain-General to the Fifth Army.
In April 1918 he was married to Cecil Mary Eastwood by his father at West Stoke Church, near Chichester. On 12 April 1920 he was elected Bishop of Pretoria, in succession to Bishop Furse, and was consecrated in St. Paul's Cathedral on St John the Baptist's Day. Among the bishops who took part in the consecration were his own father, then Bishop of Winchester, the Archbishop of Cape Town, and his predecessor in the Diocese of Pretoria, Bishop Michael Furse.
In 1930 he refused the appointment as Bishop of Newcastle, New South Wales. He was appointed to St. Mary's Church, Nottingham, in 1933. Neville used to refer to St. Mary's as St. Pelican in the Wilderness. This is explained by the comment of a priest in the diocese:
"He arrived snuffing like a great war-horse, longing for the battle; determined to bring Nottingham to the feet of Christ. He was not a little handicapped by the fact that he came just when the migration from the city began, with the result that the old-fashioned kind of worshippers had largely moved into the country. This handicap was late accentuated during the war by the difficulties of transport. His congregation did not increase as he had hoped."
The parish was largely non-residential, and the church was surrounded by factories and offices which Neville used to visit carrying handbills announcing the special dinner-hour service.
Neville was in excellent relations with the non-Anglican religious bodies in Nottingham. In co-operation with Dr McNulty, the Roman Catholic Bishop of Nottingham, and Mr James, the Free Church leader, he helped to create the Nottinghamshire Christian Council, which owed much to the combination in Neville of an outspoken loyalty to his convictions with a warm spirit of fraternity.
In May 1941, Neville wrote from Nottingham :
"We had a visitation - nothing compared with some places, but still a very real taste. Began about twelve. We had gone to bed, and tried to believe that the explosions were our guns, but soon one and then another were unmistakable - one was not far off down Friar's Lane. Peering out of the top window, I soon realised that big fires had been started, so, there being a lull, I went down. I found a fire going in the South Transept of the Church. It took a long time really to put it out."
Neville was often restless within the conditions of his restriction in his parish at Nottingham - restrictions greatly increased by the war. He likened himself to "an old hulk stranded on a lee-shore". His fearless honesty made him accuse himself of ambition, but, if it was there, it did not lurk in any secret corner. In March 1939 he was offered the position of Bishop of Croydon. He would have been Suffragan and Archdeacon as well as Vicar. His first feeling was that he must accept. He felt that nine years in Nottingham were enough, and that "the call came from the Church and not from Downing Street." However, after inspecting conditions on the spot, he decided against.
With the coming of the war, there seemed to open out at last the chance for work that suited his gifts. It arose out of his interest in the Royal Air Force . In January 1941, he took a four days' mission for them at Cranwell, and in 1942 he took a mission in the Royal Air Force depot at Donington. Such experiences convinced him that far more was needed on the spiritual side in the Chaplains' department, and he began a long and unwearied bombardment of the authorities (military and ecclesiastical). He visited C. S. Lewis at Magdalen College, Oxford, staying overnight on 5 November 1941 for conversation between two men who were both involved in the RAF, Lewis as a lecturer. In November 1942, the two archbishops wrote to inform him that he had been appointed as one of the seven men that were to give the greater part of the time to visiting Air Force centres. On 9 December he wrote that he was to start on 12 January 1943. However, just when the direction of his life was moving in a direction that would more suitable employ his talents, came the tragic collapse. On 12 December 1942 he had a severe heart-attack, from which he never recovered.
He retired to Sussex for convalescence where he died. He was buried at All Hallows Barking, the religious headquarters of Toc H (Talbot House).

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neville_Talbot .

A scholar studying psychology and women

Arnold C. Taylor was a translator and editor of Pali Text Society, including of "Kathāvatthu", "Paṭisambhidāmagga.", "Tipiṭaka.", "Suttapiṭaka", "Abhidhammapiṭaka."

(from Wikipedia entry)

James Joseph Sylvester FRS (3 September 1814 - 15 March 1897) was an English mathematician. He made fundamental contributions to matrix theory, invariant theory, number theory, partition theory and combinatorics. He played a leadership role in American mathematics in the later half of the 19th century as a professor at the Johns Hopkins University and as founder of the American Journal of Mathematics. At his death, he was professor at Oxford. Sylvester was born James Joseph in London, England. His father, Abraham Joseph, was a merchant. James adopted the surname Sylvester when his older brother did so upon emigration to the United States—a country which at that time required all immigrants to have a given name, a middle name, and a surname. At the age of 14, Sylvester was a student of Augustus De Morgan at the University of London. His family withdrew him from the University after he was accused of stabbing a fellow student with a knife. Subsequently he attended the Liverpool Royal Institution.

Sylvester began his study of mathematics at St John's College, Cambridge in 1831, where his tutor was John Hymers. Although his studies were interrupted for almost two years due to a prolonged illness, he nevertheless ranked second in Cambridge's famous mathematical examination, the tripos, for which he sat in 1837. However, Sylvester was not issued a degree, because graduates at that time were required to state their acceptance of the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England, and Sylvester, being an adherent of Judaism, refused to do so. For the same reason, he was unable to compete for a Fellowship or obtain a Smith's prize. In 1838 Sylvester became professor of natural philosophy at University College London. In 1841, he was awarded a BA and an MA by Trinity College, Dublin. In the same year he moved to the United States to become a professor at the University of Virginia for about six months, and returned to England in November 1843.

On his return to England he studied law, alongside fellow British lawyer/mathematician Arthur Cayley, with whom he made significant contributions to matrix theory while working as an actuary. One of his private pupils was Florence Nightingale. He did not obtain a position teaching university mathematics until 1855, when he was appointed professor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, from which he retired in 1869, because the compulsory retirement age was 55. The Woolwich academy initially refused to pay Sylvester his full pension, and only relented after a prolonged public controversy, during which Sylvester took his case to the letters page of The Times.

One of Sylvester's lifelong passions was for poetry; he read and translated works from the original French, German, Italian, Latin and Greek, and many of his mathematical papers contain illustrative quotes from classical poetry. Following his early retirement, Sylvester (1870) published a book entitled The Laws of Verse in which he attempted to codify a set of laws for prosody in poetry.

In 1877 Sylvester again crossed the Atlantic Ocean to become the inaugural professor of mathematics at the new Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. His salary was $5,000 (quite generous for the time), which he demanded be paid in gold. In 1878 he founded the American Journal of Mathematics. The only other mathematical journal in the U.S. at that time was the Analyst, which eventually became the Annals of Mathematics.

In 1883, he returned to England to take up the Savilian Professor of Geometry at Oxford University. He held this chair until his death, although in 1892 the University appointed a deputy professor to the same chair.

Sylvester invented a great number of mathematical terms such as "graph" (combinatorics) and discriminant. He coined the term "totient" for Euler's totient function φ(n). His collected scientific work fills four volumes. In 1880, the Royal Society of London awarded Sylvester the Copley Medal, its highest award for scientific achievement; in 1901, it instituted the Sylvester Medal in his memory, to encourage mathematical research after his death in Oxford. In Discrete geometry he is remembered for Sylvester's Problem and a result on the orchard problem.

Sylvester House, a portion of an undergraduate dormitory at Johns Hopkins University, is named in his honor. Several professorships there are named in his honor also.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joseph_Sylvester .

(from Wikipedia entry)

Nikola Tesla (Serbian Cyrillic: Никола Тесла; 10 July 1856 - 7 January 1943) was a Serbian American inventor, electrical engineer, mechanical engineer, and futurist best known for his contributions to the design of the modern alternating current (AC) electricity supply system.

Tesla gained experience in telephony and electrical engineering before emigrating to the United States in 1884 to work for Thomas Edison in New York City. He soon struck out on his own with financial backers, setting up laboratories and companies to develop a range of electrical devices. His patented AC induction motor and transformer were licensed by George Westinghouse, who also hired Tesla for a short time as a consultant. Tesla went on to pursue his ideas of wireless lighting and electricity distribution in his high-voltage, high-frequency power experiments in New York and Colorado Springs and made early (1893) pronouncements on the possibility of wireless communication with his devices. He tried to put these ideas to practical use in his ill-fated attempt at intercontinental wireless transmission; his unfinished Wardenclyffe Tower project. In his lab he also conducted a range of experiments with mechanical oscillator/generators, electrical discharge tubes, and early X-ray imaging. He even built a wireless controlled boat which may have been the first such device ever exhibited. Tesla's achievements and his abilities as a showman demonstrating his seemingly miraculous inventions made him world-famous. Although he made a considerable amount of money from his patents, he spent a lot financing his own projects. He lived for most of his life in a series of New York hotels although the end of his patent income and eventual bankruptcy led him to live in diminished circumstances. Tesla continued to invite the press to parties he held on his birthday to announce new inventions he was working on and make (sometimes unusual) public statements. Because of his pronouncements and the nature of his work over the years, Tesla gained a reputation in popular culture as the archetypal "mad scientist." He died on 7 January 1943.

Tesla's work fell into relative obscurity after his death, but since the 1990s, his reputation has experienced a resurgence in popular culture. His work and reputed inventions are also at the center of many conspiracy theories and have also been used to support various pseudosciences, UFO theories and New Age occultism. In 1960, in honor of Tesla, the General Conference on Weights and Measures for the International System of Units dedicated the term "tesla" to the SI unit measure for magnetic field strength. Nikola Tesla was born on 10 July (O.S. 28 June) 1856 to Serbian parents in the village of Smiljan, Austrian Empire (modern-day Croatia). His father, Milutin Tesla, was a Serbian Orthodox priest. Tesla's mother, Đuka Tesla (née Mandić), whose father was also a Serbian Orthodox priest, had a talent for making home craft tools, mechanical appliances, and the ability to memorize Serbian epic poems. Đuka had never received a formal education. Nikola credited his eidetic memory and creative abilities to his mother's genetics and influence. Tesla's progenitors were from western Serbia, near Montenegro.

Tesla was the fourth of five children. He had an older brother named Dane and three sisters, Milka, Angelina and Marica. Dane was killed in a horse-riding accident when Nikola was five. However, according to another account, Dane died after falling down the cellar stairs, but when he was unconscious and in delirium, he claimed that Nikola pushed him down. In January 1880, two of Tesla's uncles put together enough money to help him leave Gospić for Prague where he was to study. Unfortunately, he arrived too late to enroll at Charles-Ferdinand University; he never studied Greek, a required subject; and he was illiterate in Czech, another required subject. Tesla did, however, attend lectures at the university, although, as an auditor, he did not receive grades for the courses.

In 1881, Tesla moved to Budapest to work under Ferenc Puskas at a telegraph company, the Budapest Telephone Exchange. Upon arrival, Tesla realized that the company, then under construction, was not functional, so he worked as a draftsman in the Central Telegraph Office instead. Within a few months, the Budapest Telephone Exchange became functional and Tesla was allocated the chief electrician position. During his employment, Tesla made many improvements to the Central Station equipment and claimed to have perfected a telephone repeater or amplifier, which was never patented nor publicly described. In 1882, Tesla began working for the Continental Edison Company in France, designing and making improvements to electrical equipment.

In June 1884, Tesla relocated to New York City. During his trip across the Atlantic, his ticket, money, and some of his luggage were stolen, and he was nearly thrown overboard after a mutiny broke out on the ship. He arrived with only four cents in his pocket, a letter of recommendation, a few poems, and the remainder of his belongings.

Tesla was hired by Edison to work for his Edison Machine Works. Tesla's work for Edison began with simple electrical engineering and quickly progressed to solving some of the company's most difficult problems. Tesla was even offered the task of completely redesigning the Edison Company's direct current generators.

In 1885, Tesla claimed that he could redesign Edison's inefficient motor and generators, making an improvement in both service and economy. According to Tesla, Edison remarked, "There's fifty thousand dollars in it for you—if you can do it"—this has been noted as an odd statement from an Edison whose company was stingy with pay and who did not have that sort of cash on hand. After months of work, Tesla fulfilled the task and inquired about payment. Edison, claiming that he was only joking, replied, "Tesla, you don't understand our American humor." Instead, Edison offered a US$10 a week raise over Tesla's US$18 per week salary; Tesla refused the offer and immediately resigned. On 7 January 1943, Tesla, 86, died alone in Room 3327 of the New Yorker Hotel. His corpse was later found by maid Alice Monaghan after she had entered Tesla's room, ignoring the "do not disturb" sign that Tesla had placed on his door two days prior to his death. Assistant medical examiner, H.W. Wembly, was called to the scene; after examining the body, he ruled that the cause of death had been coronary thrombosis, and that there had been no suspicious circumstances.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla .

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Sir John Arthur Thomson (8 July 1861 - 12 February 1933) was a Scottish naturalist who authored several notable books and was an expert on soft corals. Born in Saltoun, East Lothian, he taught at the Royal (Dick) Veterinary College from 1893 until 1899 then University of Aberdeen from 1899 until 1930, the year he was knighted. His popular works sought to reconcile science and religion. Thomson's Outline of Science, published in 1922, sold more than one hundred thousand copies in five years. In his Gifford lectures and a number of books written with his friend Patrick Geddes he argued for a form of holistic biology in which the activity of the living organism could transcend the physical laws governing its component parts. Some had termed the work of Geddes and Thomson as neovitalist though the position presented in their books is more closer to panpsychism as Thomson had claimed that mind can not emerge from matter and that it has existed in nature all the time. Thomson had believed there was life at all levels, he wrote that "there is nothing inanimate". He had however found the vitalist ideas of Henri Bergson inspirational.

According to Peter J. Bowler Thomson was a popular science writer who had promoted a nonmaterialist interpretation of science though his interpretation was not accepted by all within the scientific community as some had claimed his views were neovitalist and thus outdated.

Thomson had also promoted the importance of symbiosis and cooperation in nature as opposed to the idea of struggle.

While at the University of Aberdeen Thomson supervised the research of respected carcinologist Isabella Gordon.

He died in Limpsfield, Surrey.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Arthur_Thomson.

Ralph Thicknesse (1856-19230 was most likely a legal scholar who wrote "A digest of the law of husband and wife" (1884).

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The Most Rev. William Thomson FRS, FRGS (11 February 1819 - 25 December 1890) was an English church leader, Archbishop of York from 1862 until his death. He was born at Whitehaven, Cumberland, and educated at Shrewsbury School and at The Queen's College, Oxford, of which he became a scholar. He took his B.A. degree in 1840, and was soon afterwards made fellow of his college. He was ordained in 1842, and worked as a curate at Cuddesdon. In 1847 he was made tutor of his college, and in 1853 he delivered the Bampton lectures, his subject being The Atoning Work of Christ viewed in Relation to some Ancient Theories. These thoughtful and learned lectures established his reputation and did much to clear the ground for subsequent discussions on the subject. Thomson's activity was not confined to theology. He was made fellow of the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society. He also wrote a very popular Outline of the Laws of Thought. He sided with the party at Oxford which favoured university reform, but this did not prevent him from being appointed provost of his college in 1855. In 1858 he was made preacher at Lincoln's Inn and a volume of his sermons was published in 1861. In the same year he edited Aids to Faith, a volume written in opposition to Essays and Reviews, the progressive sentiments of which had stirred up controversy in the Church of England.

In December 1861 he became Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol, and within a year he was elevated to Archbishop of York. In this position his moderate orthodoxy led him to join Archbishop Archibald Campbell Tait in supporting the Public Worship Regulation Act, and, as president of the northern convocation, he came frequently into sharp collision with the lower house of that body. But if he thus incurred the hostility of the High Church party among the clergy, he was admired by the laity for his strong sense, his clear and forcible reasoning, and his wide knowledge, and he remained to the last a power in the north of England. In his later years he published an address read before the members of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1868), one on Design in Nature, for the Christian Evidence Society, which reached a fifth edition, various charges and pastoral addresses, and he was one of the projectors of the Speaker's Commentary, for which he wrote the "Introduction to the Synoptic Gospels."

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Thomson_(bishop) .

Most likely Charles John Samuel Thomson (1862-1943), the Archbishop of York.

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Meredith White Townsend (1831-1911) was an English journalist and editor of the The Spectator. With Richard Holt Hutton, he was joint-editor of the Spectator until 1887, and he was largely instrumental in making it an established success, writing most of the political articles and the opening paragraphs every week. His two chief publications were The Great Governing Families of England (1865), written in conjunction with Langton Sanford, and Asia and Europe (1901).

Townsend was considered as one of the finest journalists of his day, and he has since been called "the greatest leader writer ever to appear in the English Press." Townsend was born at Bures, Suffolk on April 1, 1831. He was educated at Ipswich Grammar School. In 1848, he went out to India, and four years later became editor of the Friend of India, acting also for some years as Times correspondent. In 1860, Townsend returned to England and purchased the weekly Spectator in partnership with Hutton. Townsend and Hutton remained co-proprietors and joint editors for 25 years, taking a strong stand on some of the most controversial issues of their day. They supported the Federalists against the South in the American Civil War, an unpopular position which, at the time, did some damage to the paper’s circulation, though gained readers in the long run when the North won. They also launched an all-out assault on Benjamin Disraeli, accusing him in a series of leaders of jettisoning ethics for politics by ignoring the atrocities committed against Bulgarian civilians by Turkey in the 1870s. Towsend published Asia and Europe in 1901, the studies presenting the conclusions formed by him in a long life devoted to the subject of the relations between Asia and Europe. He had previously published The Great Governing Families of England (1865) in partnership with John Langton Sanford. The book detailed the histories of the great administrator-families of England. Townsend also contributed to a biography of the Islamic prophet Mohamed, which was presented predominantly from a British Imperial point of view. In 1887, Townsend was succeeded by John St Loe Strachey, a young aristocrat who had replaced H.H. Asquith (the future Prime Minister) as a leader-writer of the Spectator during the previous year." Townsend died at Little Bookham, Surrey on 21 October 1911.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meredith_Townsend .

Algar Labouchere Thorold (1866-1936), son of Anthony Wilson Thorold (1826-1895) was an Anglican Bishop of Winchester in the Victorian era, and his wife Emily Labouchere, sister of the MP Henry Labouchere.

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Henry Duff Traill (14 August 1842 - 21 February 1900), was a British author and journalist.

Born at Blackheath, he belonged to an old Caithness family, the Traills of Rattar, and his father, James Traill, was the stipendiary magistrate of Greenwich and Woolwich Police Court. He was sent to the Merchant Taylors' School, where he rose to be head of the school and obtained a scholarship at St. John's College, Oxford. Initially destined for the profession of medicine, Traill took his degree in natural sciences in 1865 but then he read for the bar and was called in 1869. In 1871 he received an appointment as an Inspector of Returns for the Board of Education, a position which left him leisure to cultivate his gift for literature.

In 1873 he became a contributor to the Pall Mall Gazette, then under the editorship of Frederick Greenwood. He followed Greenwood to the St. James's Gazette when in 1880 the Pall Mall Gazette took for a time the Liberal side, and he continued to contribute to that paper up to 1895. In the meantime he had also joined the staff of the Saturday Review, to which he sent, among other writings, weekly verses upon subjects of the hour. Some of the best of these he republished in 1882 in a volume called Recaptured Rhymes, and others in a later collection of Saturday Songs (1890).

He was also a leader-writer for the Daily Telegraph and edited The Observer from 1889 until 1891, which experienced an increase in circulation during his time there. In 1897 he became first editor of Literature, when that weekly paper (afterwards sold and incorporated with the Academy) was established by the proprietors of The Times, and directed its fortunes until his death.

Traill's long connection with journalism must not obscure the fact that he was a man of letters rather than a journalist. He wrote best when he wrote with least sense of the burden of responsibility. His playful humour and his ready wit were only given full scope when he was writing to please himself. One of his most brilliant jeux d'esprit was a pamphlet which was published without his name soon after he had begun to write for the newspapers. It was called The Israelitish Question and the Comments of the Canaan Journals thereon (1876). This told the story of the Exodus in articles which parodied very cleverly the style of all the leading journals of the day, and was at once recognized as the work of a born humorist. Traill sustained this reputation with The New Lucian, which appeared in 1884 (2nd ed., with several new dialogues, 1900); but for the rest his labors were upon more serious lines. He directed the production of a vast work on Social England in 1893-1898; he wrote, for several series of biographies, studies of Coleridge (1884), Sterne (1882), William III (1888), Shaftesbury (1886), Strafford (1889), and Lord Salisbury (1891); he compiled a biography of Sir John Franklin, the Arctic explorer (1896); and after a visit to Egypt he published a volume on the country, and in 1897 appeared his book on Lord Cromer, the man who had done so much to bring it back to prosperity. Of these the literary studies are the best, for Traill possessed great critical insight. He published two collections of essays: Number Twenty (1892), and The New Fiction (1897). In 1865 his Glaucus, a tale of a Fish, was produced at the Olympic Theatre with Miss Nellie Farren in the part of Glaucus. In conjunction with Mr. Robert Hichens he wrote The Medicine Man, produced at the Lyceum in 1898. He died in London on the 21st of February 1900.

He also edited the Centenary edition of the Works of Thomas Carlyle (30 volumes, Chapman and Hall, 1896-1907), writing introductions to the various works.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Duff_Traill .

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Anthony Wilson Thorold (1826-1895) was an Anglican Bishop of Winchester in the Victorian era. The son of a Church of England priest, he also served as Bishop of Rochester. It was in that role that he travelled throughout North America and met with important leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. While he wrote a number of devotional books, he is best remembered for having recruited Isabella Gilmore to revive the female diaconate in the Anglican Communion. Thorold was the second son of the Reverend Edward Thorold and his wife Mary (nee Wilson), and grandson of Sir John Thorold, 9th Baronet (1734-1815). He married Henrietta Greene and followed his father into a career in the Church of England. He served as vicar of St Giles in the Fields, Curzon Chapel, and St Pancras. His wife died in 1859 and he married secondly to Emily Labouchere, sister of the MP Henry Labouchere. They had three children: Algar Labouchere Thorold (1866-1936), Dorothy, and Sybil (later Countess de la Bédoyère). His descendants through Sybil include his grandson Michael de la Bédoyère and his great-great-grandson, the historian Guy de la Bédoyère.

In 1870 he was elected a member of the first London School Board, representing the Marylebone Division.

His second wife died in 1877, the same year he was made Bishop of Rochester. Thorold's cousin, Edward Trollope, was made suffragan bishop for Nottingham also that same year. Thorold had extensive travels, preaching in the United States in the late 19th century. During that time he visited The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints at Salt Lake City. He recalled that on 1 September 1884, "We went round the new Mormon Tabernacle, of solid granite, very massively built out of the tithes of the people. It is only one-third finished. Then into the tabernacle now in use, tortoise shape, and capable of holding 7000 people ... we passed the great co-operative store ... and Brigham Young's houses', near which was pointed out Mr. Taylor [presumably John Taylor], a very important and able ruler in the body". Thorold went on to the Great Salt Lake and noted "There is a bathing station here, and almost all the company, gentlemen and ladies, bathed in the sea, which, from the quantity of salt, it is quite impossible to sink". He travelled on and even reached Alaska before returning home.

In 1886, he recruited Isabella Gilmore, to revive the female diaconate in his diocese. Her initial reluctance, based on her lack of theological training and her lack of knowledge of the Deaconess Order, was worn down by Thorold. At the end of October 1886, she felt she received a calling during Morning Prayer. She later wrote, "it was just as if God’s voice had called me, and the intense rest and joy were beyond words." Gilmore and Bishop Thorold proceeded to plan for an Order of Deaconesses for the Church of England where the women were to be “a curiously effective combination of nurse, social worker and amateur policemen”. In 1887, Gilmore was ordained a deaconess and a training house for other woman was put in place, later to be named Gilmore House in her honor. In her nearly 20 years of service, she reestablished the female deaconate in the Anglican Communion. Unlike his cousin, Bishop Edward Trollope, Thorold performed little serious scholarship. He did write a number of devotional books, among them The Yoke of Christ (Isbister, London 1884), The Gospel of Christ (Isbister 1884), and The Claim of Christ on the Young (Isbister, London 1891. Shortly after his death in 1895, C. H. Simpkinson wrote The Life and Work of Bishop Thorold, published by Isbister in 1896. It contained many quotes from Thorold's correspondence and also accounts of his travels.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Thorold .

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Edward Bradford Titchener D.Sc., Ph.D., LL.D., Litt.D. (January 11, 1867 - August 3, 1927) was a British psychologist who studied under Wilhelm Wundt for several years. Titchener is best known for creating his version of psychology that described the structure of the mind; structuralism. He created the largest doctoral program in the United States (at the time) after becoming a professor at Cornell University, and his first graduate student, Margaret Floy Washburn, became the first woman to be granted a PhD in psychology (1894). Titchener attended Malvern College and then went on to Oxford from 1885 to 1890. At Oxford, Titchener first began to read the works of Wilhelm Wundt. During his time at Oxford, Titchener translated the first volume of the third edition of Wundt’s book Principles of Physiological Psychology from German into English. After receiving his degree from Oxford in 1890, Titchener went on to Leipzig in Germany to study with Wundt. He completed his doctoral program and went on to take a position as a professor at Cornell University where he taught his view on the ideas of Wundt to his students in the form of structuralism. Titchener’s ideas on how the mind worked were heavily influenced by Wundt’s theory of voluntarism and his ideas of Association and Apperception (the passive and active combinations of elements of consciousness respectively). Titchener attempted to classify the structures of the mind in the way a chemist breaks down chemicals into their component parts—water into hydrogen and oxygen, for example. Thus, for Titchener, just as hydrogen and oxygen were structures, so were sensations and thoughts. He conceived of hydrogen and oxygen as structures of a chemical compound, and sensations and thoughts as structures of the mind. A sensation, according to Titchener, had four distinct properties: intensity, quality, duration, and extent. Each of these related to some corresponding quality of stimulus, although some stimuli were insufficient to provoke their relevant aspect of sensation. He further differentiated particular types of sensations: auditory sensation, for example, he divided into "tones" and "noises." Ideas and perceptions he considered to be formed from sensations; "ideational type" was related to the type of sensation on which an idea was based, e.g., sound or vision, a spoken conversation or words on a page.

Titchener believed that if the basic components of the mind could be defined and categorized that the structure of mental processes and higher thinking could be determined. What each element of the mind is, how those elements interact with each other and why they interact in the ways that they do was the basis of reasoning that Titchener used in trying to find structure to the mind. The main tool that Titchener used to try to determine the different components of consciousness was introspection. Unlike Wundt’s method of introspection, Titchener had very strict guidelines for the reporting of an introspective analysis. The subject would be presented with an object, such as a pencil. The subject would then report the characteristics of that pencil (color, length, etc.). The subject would be instructed not to report the name of the object (pencil) because that did not describe the raw data of what the subject was experiencing. Titchener referred to this as stimulus error.

In "Experimental Psychology: A Manual of Laboratory Practice", Titchener detailed the procedures of his introspective methods precisely. As the title suggests, the manual was meant to encompass all of experimental psychology despite its focus on introspection. To Titchener, there could be no valid psychological experiments outside of introspection, and he opened the section "Directions to Students" with the following definition: "A psychological experiment consists of an introspection or a series of introspections made under standard conditions."

This manual of Titchener's provided students with in-depth outlines of procedure for experiments on optical illusions, Weber's Law, visual contrast, after-images, auditory and olfactory sensations, perception of space, ideas, and associations between ideas, as well as descriptions proper behavior during experiments and general discussion of psychological concepts. Titchener wrote another instructive manual for students and two more for instructors in the field (Hothersall 2004, p. 142). The level of detail Titchener put into these manuals reflected his devotion to a scientific approach to psychology. He argued that all measurements were simply agreed-upon "conventions" and subscribed to the belief that psychological phenomena, too, could be systematically measured and studied. Titchener put great stock in the systematic work of Gustav Fechner, whose psychophysics advanced the notion that it was indeed possible to measure mental phenomena (Titchener 1902, p. cviii- cix).

The majority of experiments were to be performed by two trained researchers working together, one functioning as the "observer" (O) and the other as the "experimenter" (E). The experimenter would set up the experiment and record the introspection made by his or her partner. After the first run of any experiment, the researchers were to then switch roles and repeat the experiment. Titchener placed a great deal of emphasis on the importance of harmony and communication between the two memberships in these partnerships. Communication, in particular, was necessary, because illness or agitation on the part of the observer could affect the outcome of any given experiment. Titchener was a charismatic and forceful speaker. However, although his idea of structuralism thrived while he was alive and championing for it, structuralism did not live on after his death. Some modern reflections on Titchener consider the narrow scope of his psychology and the strict, limited methodology he deemed acceptable as a prominent explanation for the fall of Titchener's structuralism after his death. So much of it was wrapped up in Titchener's precise, careful dictations that without him, the field floundered. Structuralism, along with Wundt’s voluntarism, were both effectively challenged and improved upon, though they did influence many schools of psychology today.

Titchener was known for bringing some part of Wundt's structuralism to America, but with a few modifications. For example, whereas Wilhelm Wundt emphasized the relationship between elements of consciousness, Titchener focused on identifying the basic elements themselves. In his textbook An Outline of Psychology (1896), Titchener put forward a list of more than 44,000 elemental qualities of conscious experience.

Titchener is also remembered for coining the English word "empathy" in 1909 as a translation of the German word "Einfühlungsvermögen", a new phenomenon explored at the end of 19th century mainly by Theodor Lipps. "Einfühlungsvermögen" was later re-translated as "Empathie", and is still in use that way in German.

Titchener's effect on the history of psychology, as it is taught in classrooms, was partially the work of his student Edwin Boring. Boring's experimental work was largely unremarkable, but his book History of Experimental Psychology was widely influential, as, consequentially, were his portrayals of various psychologists, including his own mentor Edward Titchener. The length at which Boring detailed Titchener's contributions—contemporary Hugo Münsterberg received roughly a tenth as much of Boring's attention—raise questions today as to whether or not the influence credited to Titchener on the history of psychology is inflated as a result.

Professor Titchener received honorary degrees from Harvard, Clark, and Wisconsin. He became a charter member of the American Psychological Association, translated Külpe's Outlines of Psychology and other works, became the American editor of Mind in 1894, and associate editor of the American Journal of Psychology in 1895, and wrote several books. In 1904, he founded the group "The Experimentalists," which continues today as the "Society of Experimental Psychologists". Titchener's brain was contributed to the Wilder Brain Collection at Cornell.

For more information, see Wikipedia at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_B._Titchener .

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Ferdinand Tönnies (26 July 1855, near Oldenswort, Eiderstedt, North Frisia, Schleswig - 9 April 1936, Kiel, Germany) was a German sociologist and philosopher. He was a major contributor to sociological theory and field studies, best known for his distinction between two types of social groups, Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. He was also a prolific writer and co-founder of the German Society for Sociology (of which he was president from 1909 to 1933, when he was ousted by the Nazis). Ferdinand Tönnies was born into a wealthy farmer's family in North Frisia, Schleswig (today Nordfriesland, Schleswig-Holstein), then under Danish rule. He studied at the universities of Jena, Bonn, Leipzig, Berlin, and Tübingen. He received a doctorate in Tübingen in 1877 (with a Latin thesis on the ancient Siwa Oasis). Four years later he became a private lecturer at the University of Kiel. Because he had sympathized with the Hamburg dockers' strike of 1896, the conservative Prussian government considered him to be a social democrat, and Tönnies was not called to a professorial chair until 1913. He held this post at the University of Kiel for only three years. He returned to the university as a professor emeritus in 1921 and taught until 1933 when he was ousted by the Nazis, due to his earlier publications that criticized them.

Tönnies, the first German sociologist proper, published over 900 works and contributed to many areas of sociology and philosophy. Many of his writings on sociological theories — including Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1887) — furthered pure sociology. He coined the metaphysical term Voluntarism. Tönnies also contributed to the study of social change, particularly on public opinion, customs and technology, crime, and suicide. He also had a vivid interest in methodology, especially statistics, and sociological research, inventing his own technique of statistical association. Tönnies distinguished between two types of social groupings. Gemeinschaft — often translated as community (or left untranslated)— refers to groupings based on feelings of togetherness and on mutual bonds, which are felt as a goal to be kept up, their members being means for this goal. Gesellschaft — often translated as society — on the other hand, refers to groups that are sustained by it being instrumental for their members' individual aims and goals.

Gemeinschaft may be exemplified historically by a family or a neighborhood in a pre-modern (rural) society; Gesellschaft by a joint-stock company or a state in a modern society, i.e. the society when Tönnies lived. Gesellschaft relationships arose in an urban and capitalist setting, characterized by individualism and impersonal monetary connections between people. Social ties were often instrumental and superficial, with self-interest and exploitation increasingly the norm. Examples are corporations, states, or voluntary associations.

His distinction between social groupings is based on the assumption that there are only two basic forms of an actor's will, to approve of other men. (For Tönnies, such an approval is by no means self-evident, he is quite influenced by Thomas Hobbes). Following his "essential will" ("Wesenwille"), an actor will see himself as a means to serve the goals of social grouping; very often it is an underlying, subconscious force. Groupings formed around an essential will are called a Gemeinschaft. The other will is the "arbitrary will" ("Kürwille"): An actor sees a social grouping as a means to further his individual goals; so it is purposive and future-oriented. Groupings around the latter are called Gesellschaft. Whereas the membership in a Gemeinschaft is self-fulfilling, a Gesellschaft is instrumental for its members. In pure sociology — theoretically —, these two normal types of will are to be strictly separated; in applied sociology — empirically — they are always mixed.

Tönnies’ distinction between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, like others between tradition and modernity, has been criticized for over-generalizing differences between societies, and implying that all societies were following a similar evolutionary path, an argument which he never proclaimed.

The equilibrium in Gemeinschaft is achieved through morals, conformism, and exclusion - social control - while Gesellschaft keeps its equilibrium through police, laws, tribunals and prisons. Amish, Hassidic communities are examples of Gemeinschaft, while states are types of Gesellschaft. Rules in Gemeinschaft are implicit, while Gesellschaft has explicit rules (written laws).

For more information see Wikipedia entry at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies .

(from Wikipedia entry)

Wilfred Batten Lewis Trotter, FRS (1872-1939) was a British surgeon, a pioneer in neurosurgery. He was also known for his studies on social psychology, most notably for his concept of the herd instinct, which he first outlined in two published papers in 1908, and later in his famous popular work Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War. Trotter argued that gregariousness was an instinct, and studied beehives, flocks of sheep and wolf packs. Born in Coleford, Gloucestershire in 1872, Trotter moved to London to attend college at age 16. An excellent medical student, he decided to specialize in surgery and was appointed Surgical Registrar at University College Hospital in 1901 and Assistant Surgeon in 1906. He opened his own practice after obtaining his medical degree. He was also a keen writer, with an interest in science and philosophy. In 1908, he published two papers on the subject of herd mentality, which were precursors to his later, more famous, work.

Working at University College Hospital in London as professor of surgery, he held the office of honorary surgeon to King George V from 1928 to 1932. He was also a member of the Council of the Royal Society that conferred their Honorary Membership on Professor Freud, whom he attended after his move to England. Later he was consulted about Freud's terminal cancer, in 1938. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in May 1931. In the last years of his life, he became professor and director of the surgical unit at UCH and turned to writing on a larger scale.

He died in Blackmoor, Hampshire in 1939. The Collected Papers of Wilfred Trotter, an anthology of his final essays, appeared two years after his death.

Trotter was also the surgeon, at University College London for whom Wilfred Bion worked as a resident in his own medical training, before he famously studied groups and trained as a psychoanalyst at the Tavistock Institute. In her account of Bion's life "The Days of our Years," his wife Francesca writes of the great influence Trotter had on the direction of Bion's work on group relations.

Edward Bernays, author of Propaganda and nephew to Freud, also refers to Trotter and Gustave Le Bon in his writings.

He met Sigmund Freud several times. According to Ernest Jones (Freud's first biographer), "he was one of the first two or three in England to appreciate the significance of Freud's work, which I came to know through him. He was one of the rapidly diminishing group who attended the first International Congress at Salzburg in 1908". Trotter's popular book, The Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War is an analysis of group psychology and the ability of large numbers of people to be swayed by innate tendency. In it he popularised in English the concept, first developed by French sociologist Gustave Le Bon, of an instinct overriding the will of the individual in favour of the group.

Trotter's writings about the herd mentality, which began as early as 1905 and were published as a paper in two parts in 1908 and 1909 are considered by some to represent a breakthrough in the understanding of group behaviour, long before its study became important in a variety of fields, from workplace relations to marketing. includes ltter from Trotter to Dr. F. van Eeden.

For more information see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfred_Trotter.

(from Wikipedia entry)

Herbert Hall Turner FRS (13 August 1861, Leeds - 20 August 1930, Stockholm) was a British astronomer and seismologist. Herbert Hall Turner was educated at Clifton College and Trinity College, Cambridge., In 1884 he accepted the post of Chief Assistant at Greenwich Observatory and stayed there for nine years. In 1893 he became Savilian Professor of Astronomy and Director of the Observatory at Oxford University, a post he held for 37 years until his sudden death in 1930.

He was one of the observers in the Eclipse Expeditions of 1886 and 1887. In seismology, he is credited with the discovery of deep focus earthquakes. He is also credited with coining the word parsec.

His 1897 Royal Society candidature citation read: " Secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society. Was Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich 1884-1894. Author of various papers among which may be mentioned:-

"On the correction of the Equilibrium theory of tides for the continents (with G H Darwin, Proc.RS. vol lx)
"Report of observations of total solar eclipse of Aug 29 1886" (Phil Trans. vol 180A),
"On Mr Edgeworth's method of reducing observations relating to several quantities" (Phil. Mag. Vol24).
"On Mr Leath's Intersects" (Monthly Notices R.A.S. vol xlvi).
"On observations for coincidence of collimators at Royal Observatory Greenwich" (M,N. Vols xlv and liii).
"On the variations of level against of the Transit Circle at Royal Observatory Greenwich" (M.N. Vol.xlvii).
"On the longitude of Paris" (M.N. vol li).
"on stellar Photography" (M.N. Vols xlix and liv)
On the R-D discordnace (M.N. vol Liii p. 374 and 424, vol Liv p. 486, Mem Part. 3. vol ii);
On new forms of levels (M.N. Vol Lii).
Conference of the Cape (1880) and Greenwich (1880)
Star Catalogues (Mem. Rs.F.S, vol Li).
On the reduction of measures of photographic plates (N.N. vol LiV)
He co edited the first official history of the Royal Astronomical Society along with John Louis Emil Dreyer, History of the Royal Astronomical Society 1820-1920 (1923, reprinted 1987).

He died of a brain haemorrhage in 1930 at a conference in Stockholm. He had married Agnes Margaret Whyte in 1899; they had one daughter, Dr Ruth Turner of St Mary's Hospital, London.

A few months before Turner's death in 1930, the Lowell Observatory announced the discovery of a new minor planet, and an eleven-year-old Oxford schoolgirl, Venetia Burney, proposed the name Pluto for it to her grandfather Falconer Madan, who was retired from the Bodleian Library, Madan passed the name to Turner, who cabled it to colleagues at the Lowell Observatory in the United States. The new minor planet was officially named "Pluto" on 24 March 1930.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Hall_Turner .

Louisa Charlotte Hamilton Tyndall was the wife of John Tyndall (1820-1893). They married in 1876 when she was 30 and he was 55. She was the daughter of Lord Claud Hamilton, a Conservative Member of Parliament for County Tyrone from 1835-1837 and 1839-1874.

(from Wikipedia entry)

John Tyndall FRS (2 August 1820 - 4 December 1893) was a prominent 19th century physicist. His initial scientific fame arose in the 1850s from his study of diamagnetism. Later he made discoveries in the realms of infrared radiation and the physical properties of air. Tyndall also published more than a dozen science books which brought state-of-the-art 19th century experimental physics to a wide audience. From 1853 to 1887 he was professor of physics at the Royal Institution of Great Britain in London. Tyndall was born in Leighlinbridge, County Carlow, Ireland. His father was a local police constable, descended from Gloucestershire emigrants who settled in southeast Ireland around 1670. Tyndall attended the local schools in County Carlow until his late teens, and was probably an assistant teacher near the end of his time there. Subjects learned at school notably included technical drawing and mathematics with some applications of those subjects to land surveying. He was hired as a draftsman by the government's land surveying & mapping agency in Ireland in his late teens in 1839, and moved to work for the same agency in England in 1842. In the decade of the 1840s, a railroad-building boom was in progress, and Tyndall's land surveying experience was valuable and in demand by the railway companies. Between 1844 and 1847, he was lucratively employed in railway construction planning. In 1847 Tyndall opted to become a mathematics and surveying teacher at a boarding school in Hampshire. Recalling this decision later, he wrote: "the desire to grow intellectually did not forsake me; and, when railway work slackened, I accepted in 1847 a post as master in Queenwood College." Another recently arrived young teacher at Queenwood was Edward Frankland, who had previously worked as a chemical laboratory assistant for the British Geological Survey. Frankland and Tyndall became good friends. On the strength of Frankland's prior knowledge, they decided to go to Germany to further their education in science. Among other things, Frankland knew that certain German universities were ahead of any in Britain in experimental chemistry and physics. (British universities were still focused on classics and mathematics and not laboratory science.) The pair moved to Germany in summer 1848 and enrolled at the University of Marburg, where Robert Bunsen was an influential teacher. Tyndall studied under Bunsen for two years. Perhaps more influential for Tyndall at Marburg was Professor Hermann Knoblauch, with whom Tyndall maintained communications by letter for many years afterwards. Tyndall's Marburg dissertation was a mathematical analysis of screw surfaces in 1850 (under Friedrich Ludwig Stegmann). He stayed at Marburg for a further year doing research on magnetism with Knoblauch, including some months' visit at the Berlin laboratory of Knoblauch's main teacher, Heinrich Gustav Magnus. It is clear today that Bunsen and Magnus were among the very best experimental science instructors of the era. Thus, when Tyndall returned to live in England in summer 1851, he probably had as good an education in experimental science as anyone in England.

Tyndall's early original work in physics was his experiments on magnetism and diamagnetic polarity, on which he worked from 1850 to 1856. His two most influential reports were the first two, co-authored with Knoblauch. One of them was entitled "The magneto-optic properties of crystals, and the relation of magnetism and diamagnetism to molecular arrangement", dated May 1850. The two described an inspired experiment, with an inspired interpretation. These and other magnetic investigations very soon made Tyndall known among the leading scientists of the day. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1852. In his search for a suitable research appointment, he was able to ask the longtime editor of the leading German physics journal (Poggendorff) and other prominent men to write testimonials on his behalf. In 1853, he attained the prestigious appointment of Professor of Natural Philosophy (Physics) at the Royal Institution in London, due in no small part to the esteem his work had garnered from Michael Faraday, the leader of magnetic investigations at the Royal Institution. About a decade later Tyndall was appointed the successor to the positions held by Michael Faraday at the Royal Institution on Faraday's retirement. Tyndall did not marry until age 55. His bride, Louisa Hamilton, was the 30-year-old daughter of a member of parliament (Lord Claud Hamilton, M.P.). The following year, 1877, they built a summer chalet in the Swiss Alps. Before getting married Tyndall had been living for many years in an upstairs apartment at the Royal Institution and continued living there after marriage until 1885 when a move was made to a house near Haslemere 45 miles southwest of London. The marriage was a happy one and without children. He retired from the Royal Institution at age 66 having complaints of ill health.

Tyndall became financially well-off from sales of his popular books and fees from his lectures (but there is no evidence that he owned commercial patents). For many years he got non-trivial payments for being a part-time scientific advisor to a couple of quasi-governmental agencies and partly donated the payments to charity. His successful lecture tour of the United States in 1872 netted him a substantial amount of dollars, all of which he promptly donated to a trustee for fostering science in America. Late in life his money donations went most visibly to the Irish Unionist political cause. When he died, his wealth was £22122. For comparison's sake, the income of a police constable in London was about £80 per year at the time.

In his last years Tyndall often took chloral hydrate to treat his insomnia. When bedridden and ailing, he died from an accidental overdose of this drug at age 73, and was buried at Haslemere. Afterwards, Tyndall's wife took possession of his papers and assigned herself as supervisor of an official biography of him. She dragged her feet on the project, however, and it was still unfinished when she died in 1940 aged 95. The book eventually appeared in 1945, written by A. S. Eve and C. H. Creasey, whom Louisa Tyndall had authorized shortly before her death.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tyndall .

(from Wikipedia entry)

Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (2 October 1832 - 2 January 1917), was an English anthropologist.

Tylor is representative of cultural evolutionism. In his works Primitive Culture and Anthropology, he defined the context of the scientific study of anthropology, based on the evolutionary theories of Charles Lyell. He believed that there was a functional basis for the development of society and religion, which he determined was universal. Tylor is considered by many to be a founding figure of the science of social anthropology, and his scholarly works helped to build the discipline of anthropology in the nineteenth century. He believed that "research into the history and prehistory of man... could be used as a basis for the reform of British society."

Tylor reintroduced the term animism (faith in the individual soul or anima of all things, and natural manifestations) into common use. He considered animism to be the first phase of development of religions. E. B. Tylor was born in 1832, in Camberwell, London. He was the son of Joseph Tylor and Harriet Skipper, part of a family of wealthy Quakers who owned a London brass factory. His elder brother Alfred Tylor became a geologist.

He was educated at Grove House School, Tottenham, but due to the deaths of Tylor's parents during his early adulthood he never gained a university degree. After his parents’ deaths, he prepared to help manage the family business, but had to set this plan aside when he developed symptoms consistent with the onset of tuberculosis (TB). Following advice to spend time in warmer climes, Tylor left England in 1855, travelling to Mexico and Central America. The experience proved to be an important and formative one, sparking his lifelong interest in studying unfamiliar cultures.

During his travels, Tylor met Henry Christy, a fellow Quaker, ethnologist and archaeologist. Tylor's association with Christy greatly stimulated his awakening interest in anthropology, and helped broaden his inquiries to include prehistoric studies. Tylor’s first publication was a result of his 1856 trip to Mexico with Christy. His notes on the beliefs and practices of the people he encountered were the basis of his work Anahuac: Or Mexico and the Mexicans, Ancient and Modern (1861), published after his return to England. Tylor continued to study the customs and beliefs of tribal communities, both existing and prehistoric (based on archaeological finds). He published his second work, Researches into the Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilization, in 1865. Following this came his most influential work, Primitive Culture (1871). This was important not only for its thorough study of human civilization and contributions to the emergent field of anthropology, but for its undeniable influence on a handful of young scholars, such as J. G. Frazer, who were to become Tylor's disciples and contribute greatly to the scientific study of anthropology in later years.

Tylor was appointed Keeper of the University Museum at Oxford in 1883, and, as well as serving as a lecturer, held the title of the first “Reader in Anthropology” from 1884-1895. In 1896 he was appointed the first Professor of Anthropology at Oxford University. He was involved in the early history of the Pitt Rivers Museum, although to a debatable extent. Tylor’s notion is best described in his most famous work, the two-volume Primitive Culture. The first volume, The Origins of Culture, deals with ethnography including social evolution, linguistics, and myth. The second volume, Religion in Primitive Culture, deals mainly with his interpretation of animism. Fundamental to understanding Tylor’s notion is his negative feelings towards religion, and especially Christianity.

On the first page of Primitive Culture, Tylor provides a definition which is one of his most widely recognized contributions to anthropology and the study of religion:

"Culture, or civilization, taken in its broad, ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."

Unlike many of his predecessors and contemporaries, Tylor asserts that the human mind and its capabilities are the same globally, despite a particular society’s stage in social evolution. This means that a hunter-gatherer society would possess the same amount of intelligence as an advanced industrial society. The difference, Tylor asserts, is education, which he considers the cumulative knowledge and methodology that takes thousands of years to acquire. Tylor often likens primitive cultures to “children”, and sees culture and the mind of humans as progressive. His work was a refutation of the theory of social degeneration, which was popular at the time. At the end of Primitive Culture, Tylor writes, “The science of culture is essentially a reformers' science.” A term ascribed to Tylor was his theory of "survivals". Tylor asserted that when a society evolves, certain customs are retained that are unnecessary in the new society, like outworn and useless "baggage". His definition of survivals is

"processes, customs, and opinions, and so forth, which have been carried on by force of habit into a new state of society different from that in which they had their original home, and they thus remain as proofs and examples of an older condition of culture out of which a newer has been evolved."

"Survivals" can include outdated practices, such as the European practice of bloodletting, which lasted long after the medical theories on which it was based had faded from use and been replaced by more modern techniques. Critics argued that he identified the term but provided an insufficient reason as to why survivals continue. Tylor’s meme-like concept of survivals explains the characteristics of a culture that are linked to earlier stages of human culture.

Studying survivals assists ethnographers in reconstructing earlier cultural characteristics and possibly reconstructing the evolution of culture. Tylor argued that people had used religion to explain things that occurred in the world. He saw that it was important for religions to have the ability to explain why and for what reason things occurred in the world. For example, God (or the divine) gave us sun to keep us warm and give us light. Tylor argued that animism is the true natural religion that is the essence of religion; it answers the questions of which religion came first and which religion is essentially the most basic and foundation of all religions. For him, animism was the best answer to these questions, so it must be the true foundation of all religions. Animism is described as the belief in spirits inhabiting and animating beings, or souls existing in things. To Tylor, the fact that modern religious practitioners continued to believe in spirits showed that these people were no more advanced than primitive societies. For him, this implied that modern religious practitioners do not understand the ways of the universe and how life truly works because they have excluded science from their understanding of the world. By excluding scientific explanation in their understanding of why and how things occur, he asserts modern religious practitioners are rudimentary. Tylor perceived the modern religious belief in God as a “survival” of primitive ignorance. He claimed the contemporary belief in God to be a survival, because science could explain the phenomena previously justified by religion.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor .

May be G.M. Trevelyan.

(from Wikipedia entry)

Allen Upward (1863 - 12 November 1926) was a poet, lawyer, politician and teacher. His work was included in the first anthology of Imagist poetry, Des Imagistes, which was edited by Ezra Pound and published in 1914.

Upward was brought up as a member of the Plymouth Brethren and trained as a lawyer at the Royal University of Dublin (now University College Dublin). While living in Dublin, he wrote a pamphlet in favour of Irish Home Rule.

Upward later worked for the British Foreign Office in Kenya as a judge. Back in Britain, he defended Havelock Wilson and other labour leaders and ran for election as a Lib/Lab candidate in the 1890s.

He wrote two books of poetry, Songs of Ziklag (1888) and Scented Leaves from a Chinese Jar. He also published a translation Sayings of Confucious and a volume of autobiography, Some Personalities (1921).

Upward wrote a number of now-forgotten novels: The Prince of Balkistan (1895), A Crown of Straw (1896), A Bride's Madness (1897), The Accused Princess (1900) (source: Duncan, p. xii), "''The International Spy: Being a Secret History of the Russo-Japanese War" (1905), and Athelstane Ford.

His 1913 book "The Divine Mystery" is an anthropological study of Christian mythology.

In 1908, Upward self-published a book (originally written in 1901) which he apparently thought would be Nobel Prize material: The New Word. This book is today known as the first citation of the word "Scientology", although it is used in the book in a disparaging way to describe "science elevated to unquestioning doctrine". It is unknown whether L. Ron Hubbard, the founder of the Scientology-organization, knew of this book.

In 1917 the British Museum refused to take Upwards' manuscripts, "on the grounds that the writer was still alive," and Upward burned them.

He shot himself in November 1926. Ezra Pound would a decade later satirically remark that this was due to his disappointment after hearing of George Bernard Shaw's Nobel Prize award which Shaw won in 1925.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Upward .

(from Wikipedia entry)

Giovanni Vailati (24 April 1863 - 14 May 1909) was an Italian proto-analytic philosopher,historian of science, and mathematician. Vailati was born in Crema, Lombardy, and studied engineering at the University of Turin. He went on to lecture in the history of mechanics there from 1896 to 1899, after working as assistant to Giuseppe Peano and Vito Volterra. He resigned his university post in 1899 so that he could pursue his independent studies, making a living from high-school mathematics teaching. During his lifetime he became internationally known, his writings having been translated into English, French, and Polish, though he was largely forgotten after his death in Rome. He was rediscovered in the late 1950s. He did not publish any complete books, but left about 200 essays and reviews across a range of academic disciplines. Vailati's view of philosophy was that it provided a preparation and the tools for scientific work. For that reason, and because philosophy should be neutral between rival beliefs, conceptions, theoretical structures, etc., the philosopher should avoid the use of special technical language, but should use the language that she finds used in those areas in which she is interested. That is not to say that the philosopher should merely accept whatever she finds; an ordinary-language term may be problematic, but its deficiencies should be corrected rather than replacing it with some new technical term.

His view of truth and meaning was influenced by philosophers such as C.S. Peirce and Ernst Mach. He carefully distinguished between meaning and truth: "the question of determining what we mean when we propound a given proposition is entirely different from the question of deciding whether it is true or false. Nevertheless, having decided what is meant, the work of deciding whether it is true or false is crucial. Vailati held a moderate positivist view, in both science and philosophy:

"it must be demanded of anybody who advances a thesis that he be capable of indicating the facts which according to him should obtain (or have obtained) if his thesis were true, and also their difference from other facts which according to him would obtain (or have obtained) if it were not true"

Vailati's influences and contacts were many and varied, belying the oversimple label often attached to him: "the Italian pragmatist". While owing much to Peirce and William James (between whose thought he was one of the first to distinguish), he also acknowledged the influence of Plato and George Berkeley (both of whom he saw as important precursors of, or influences on, pragmatism), Gottfried Leibniz, Victoria Welby-Gregory G.E. Moore, Bertrand Russell, Peano, and Franz Brentano. He corresponded with many of his contemporaries.

His early work included papers on symbolic logic, focusing on its rôle in philosophy, and distinguishing between logic and psychology and epistemology. Vailata's main historical interests concerned mechanics, logic, and geometry, and he was an important contributor to a number of areas, including the study of post-Aristotelian Greek mechanics, of Galileo's predecessors, of the notion and rôle of definition in the work of Plato and Euclid, of mathematical influences on logic and epistemology, and of the non-Euclidean geometry of Gerolamo Saccheri. He was particularly interested in the ways in which what might be seen as the same problems are addressed and dealt with at different times.

His historical work was interrelated with his philosophical work, involving the same fundamental views and methodology. Vailati saw the two as differing in approach rather than subject matter, and believed that there should be co-operation between philosophers and scientists in the pursuit of historical studies. He also held that a complete history demanded that one take into account the relevant social background.

The superseding of scientific theories and other results doesn't involve their destruction, for their importance is increased by their being superseded: "Every error shows us a rock to be avoided, while not every discovery shows us a path to be followed.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Vailati .

Son of Lord Radstock, used pseudonym "K.E."

(from Wikipedia entry)

John Venn FRS (4 August 1834 - 4 April 1923), was a British logician and philosopher. He is famous for introducing the Venn diagram, which is used in many fields, including set theory, probability, logic, statistics, and computer science. John Venn was born on 4 August 1834 in Kingston Upon Hull, Yorkshire to Martha Sykes and Rev. Henry Venn, who was the rector of parish of Drypool. His mother died when he was three years old. Venn descended from a long line of church evangelicals, including his grandfather John Venn. He would follow his family lineage and become an Anglican priest, ordained in 1859, serving first at the church in Cheshunt, Hertfordshire, and later in Mortlake, Surrey.

He was educated by private tutors until 1853 where he went to Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. In 1857, he got his degree in mathematics and became a fellow. In 1862, he returned to Cambridge University as a lecturer in moral science, studying and teaching logic and probability theory.

In 1868, he married Susanna Carnegie Edmonstone with whom he had one son, John Archibald Venn.

In 1883, he resigned from the clergy having concluded that Anglicanism was incompatible with his philosophical beliefs. In the same year, Venn was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in the same year was awarded a Sc.D. by Cambridge.

He died on 4 April 1923. His death is unspecified.

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Venn .

(from Wikipedia entry)

Charles Voysey (1828–1912) was a priest of the Church of England who was condemned by the Privy Council for heterodoxy and went on to found a Theist Church.

Voysey was sacked from a curacy of St Mark's, Whitechapel, having denied the doctrine of eternal punishment. He later became vicar of Healaugh near Tadcaster, Yorkshire, but soon ran into difficulties there. He was prosecuted by William Thomson, Archbishop of York, starting in 1869. He was summoned before the Chancery Court of the diocese of York for heterodox teaching and deprived of his living. He appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which gave its judgement in 1871:

The Appellant is charged with having offended against the Laws Ecclesiastical by writing and publishing within the diocese of London certain sermons or essays, collected together in parts and volumes, the whole being designated by the title of "The Sling and the Stone," in which he is alleged to have maintained and promulgated doctrines contrary and repugnant to or inconsistent with the Articles of Religion and Formularies of the Church of England.

His appeal dismissed, Voysey lost his benefice. Moving to London, Voysey began holding services in St George's Hall, Langham Place, and founded the Theistic Church in Swallow Street, Piccadilly. He continued to preach and teach up to his death. He befriended Guy Aldred, the "Boy Preacher" in Holloway, in 1903.
For more information, see Wikipedia entry at:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Voysey_%28theist%29 and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Voysey_(architect)

(from Wikipedia entry)

Bernard Vaughan (1847-1922) was an English Roman Catholic clergyman, brother of Herbert and John Stephen Vaughan. He was born at Herefordshire. He was educated at Stonyhurst, and became a member of the Society of Jesus. His uncle was also a Jesuit, Richard Vaughan SJ, who went on design Sacred Heart Church in Edinburgh.

Author of "The Sins of Society" (1906),"Society, Sin, and the Saviour" (1907),"Socialism" (1910),"The Our Father, Our Country's Need Today"(1911),"Socialism from the Christian Standpoint" (1913), and "What of Today?" (1914).

For more information, see Wikipedia entry at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Vaughan

(from Wikipedia entry)

Augustus Desiré Waller FRS (18 July 1856 - 11 March 1922) was a British physiologist and the son of Augustus Volney Waller. He was born in Paris, France.

He created the first practical ECG machine with surface electrodes.

He died in London.

Fore more information, see Wikipedia entry at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_Desir%C3%A9_Waller .

Most likely Rev. Phillip Napier Waggett (1862-1939) author of "Knowledge and Virtue," "St.Anthony an the Greyfriars."

American author of "The Wisdom of Passion" (1901), "Loves of Great Men and Other Essays," "Motives of Human Nature," "The Nervous System of Jesus," and "Wisdom of Passion."
A pen name used by Walters was Salvarona. Is associated with the American Institute of Scientific Research, an organization that appears to have been involved in investigating psychic phenomena and Spiritualism.